文化有根 創意是伴 Bridging Creativity
如果我們把堅持人類尊嚴和普遍人權道義準則作為衡量媒介工作的基本尺度,那麼堅持這些原則的媒介知識分子便可以說是一種社會作用,而不僅僅是一種媒體工作職業。一個媒介工作者能否稱得上是“知識分子”,看的不是學歷,也不是單純的“專業水準”,更不是他究竟在使用文字還是圖像,而是他的社會關懷和價值立場。無論是使用文字還是圖像,知識分子發表言論,行使的都是公民的基本權利,不是知識分子的特權。所以媒體知識分子一定同時也是公民知識分子。
文字可以辨明事理,呈現真實,也可以混淆視聽,弄虛作假。言辭可以使人思想清晰、獨立思考、冷靜決斷,也可以使人頭腦麻痹、人雲亦雲、狂熱盲從。這兩種文字和言辭的不同影響(當然還包括種種處在這二者之間的灰色地帶混合影響),都直接與文字使用者的價值立場用關,也都屢屢發生在我們現實的社會生活之中。圖像的使用也同樣具有兩面性和曖昧性。
無論是文字還是圖像,在大眾媒介中都會比許多知識分子所希望的要簡單。但這並不妨礙人們從其它信息渠道(國內的和國際的)去獲得更多的信息。音象兼備的電視信息要求簡潔明了,事件敘述盡量簡約,不能涉及太多的人物和覆雜的人際關系,也不能包含那些普通觀眾需要費時間去想的問題。這是由於電視觀眾眾多,文化思考程度參差不齊,所以不可能太深入涉及的緣故。不能單單憑此貶低電視媒介的公共話語作用。它完全不一定要為統治意識形態的愚民政策服務,它也完全可以成為提供真實信息的公共服務。
對於媒介知識分子來說,明了誰是基本受眾具有特別重要的意義, 受眾意識直接關系到媒體知識分子對自己公共話語工具作用的評估。文字是媒介知識分子的傳統話語工具,也是他們的主要工具。在電視和電子多媒體時代不應該棄置這個工具,博客就是一個例子。然而,在電子媒介的新時代裏,媒介知識分子有必要重新檢視自己的話語工具箱,也有必要為新的工作需要而添置新的工具。而這些新工具中就有圖象和提示。
正如布魯麥特所說,圖象是一種提示性的傳媒手段,越是在民眾反抗受到壓制的情況下,表示不同意見就越是不能不依靠提示手段。[註45]這不僅是出於避免與統治意識和權力發生正面沖突的需要,而且也是因為說“理”的論壇資源對於統治者和反對者是完全不對等的。[註46]在公共言論缺乏自由、公共信息不能暢通的國家社會裏,即使文字也經常不得不采用暗示和提示的方法。這不僅可見於民間文字中的反話正說、調侃、玩笑和惡搞,而且也可見於學術文字中的借題發揮、旁敲側擊和顧左右而言它。
討論文字和圖象的傳媒作用以及媒介知識分子應當如何運用這些傳媒手段,都不能脫離具體的制度環境和國情。不同的具體新聞事件報道肯定會對媒介知識分子運用文字和圖象有不同的條件限制和提出不同的取舍要求,但這些差別後面還有一個共同的,更為關鍵的問題,那就是新聞事件本身能否公開而自由地報道。在公民政治的環境中,新聞事件的意義是通過民主而多元討論來獲得的。只有在新聞和言論自由的時侯,文字和圖像的力量才會充分顯示出來。新聞言論越自由,傳媒的公共話語作用就越明顯,對文字和對圖象都是一樣。
註釋:
[註1] Carl Nolte, “No Documentary Can Capture the Experience, Veterans Say.” San Francisco Chronicle, Sunday, September 23, 2007. A1, A7. 這個七集紀錄片《戰爭》長達14個多小時,不僅貫徹歷史紀錄片的一些基本原則和價值觀(如真實、公開、獨立、批判),而且還非常重視文字和圖像的互補作用。紀錄片其實可以說是一種典型的文字和圖像結合。文字的補充借助圖象,如戰鬥場面、回憶往事的見證者、戰爭時期生活場面,等等。但是,無論圖象多麼豐富,它們都是零碎的。它們可以讓觀眾看到一個個與戰爭有關的景象,但卻無法傳遞“戰爭”這個總體概念。《戰爭》回顧和討論的不只是二戰中與美國有關的種種戰役和戰鬥,而且還有戰爭所促使的美國社會變化,例如種族歧視漸漸受到重視、婦女社會作用得到加強。這個紀錄片也有許多對過去國家行為和國民文化傳統的反思,如自大的美國人、無能而好大喜功的美國將軍、戰爭決策的失誤、在普遍民族主義情緒的壓力下把日裔美國公民當作替罪羊、戰爭時期的黑市經濟,等等。
[註2]Wilson Hicks, Words and Pictures: An Introduction to Photojournalism. NY: Harper & Brothers, 1952, p.3.
[註3]Susan K. Langer 1957 “Deceptive Analogies: Specious and Real Relationships among the Art.” In Problems of Art. New York: Scribners, 1957.
[註4]Stanley Cloud and Lynne Olson, The Murrow Boys: Pioneers on the Front Lines of Broadcast Journalism. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1996, pp. 260- 63.
[註5]Martin Jay, Downcast Eyes. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993.
W. J. Thomas Michell, Iconology: Image, Text, Ideology. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1986. Wendy Steiner, The Colors of Rhetoric. Chicago. University of Chicago Press, 1982.
[註6]Daniel Boorstin, Th Image: A Guide to Pseudo-Events. New York: Harper and Row, 1961.
[註7] W. Lance Bennett, News: The Politics of Illusion, 3rd ed. New York: Longman, 1988. Lloyd Bitzer, Carter vs. Ford: The Counterfeit Debates of 1976. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1980. Murray Edelman, Constructing the Political Spectacle. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988. Robert M. Entman, Democracy without Citizens. New York: Oxford University Press. Neil Postman 1985 Amusing Ourselves to Death. New York: Penguin. 1985.
[註8]Neil Postman, Amusing Ourselves to Death, p. 3-4.
[註9]Neil Postman, Amusing Ourselves to Death, p. 28.
[註10]Neil Postman, Amusing Ourselves to Death, p. 10.
[註11]Neil Postman, Amusing Ourselves to Death, p. 18.
[註12]Neil Postman, Amusing Ourselves to Death, p. 78.
[註12]Neil Postman, Amusing Ourselves to Death, p. 66.
[註14]Neil Postman, Amusing Ourselves to Death, pp. 70, 76-77.
[註15]Neil Postman, Amusing Ourselves to Death, p. 49-50.
[註16]Neil Postman, Amusing Ourselves to Death, p. 63.
[註17]David Altheide and Robert P. Snow, Media Logic. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1979, p. 15.
[註18]Robert P. Snow, “Interaction with Mass Media: The Importance of Rhythm and Tempo.” Communication Quarterly, 35 (1987): 225-37, p. 227.
[註19]J. Curran, “Communications, Power and Social Order.” In Michael Gurevitch, et al. eds. Culture, Society and the Media. New York: Methuen, 1982, p. 220.
[註20]Douglas Kellner, “TV, Ideology, and Emancipatory Popular Culture.” In Horace Newcomb, ed. Television: The Critical View. New York: Oxford university Press, 1982, p. 399.
[註21]Joshua Meyrowitz, No Sense of Place: The Impact of Electronic Media on Social Behavior. New York: Oxford University Press, 1985, p. p. 89.
[註22]I. Connell, “Television News and the Social Contract.” In Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies, Culture, Media, Language. London: Hutchinson, 1980, p. 14.
[註23]Ben H. Bagdikian, The Media Monopoly, 4th ed. Boston: Beacon Press, 1992, p. 4.
[註24]參見Barry Brummett, Rhetorical Dimensions of Popular Culture. Tuscaloosa and London: The University of Alabama Press, 1991, pp. 12-15.對這些問題的討論很多,在此僅舉幾個例子。“商品化”問題參見,Paul M. Hirsch 1982, “The Role of Television and Popular Culture in Contemporary Society.” In Horace Newcomb, ed. Television: The Critical View. New York: Oxford University Press, 1982. p. 292. Neil Postman, Amusing Ourselves to Death, p. 130. “說故事” 問題參見 Richard Corliss, “Happy Days Are Here Again.” In H. Newcomb, ed. Television: The Critical View, p. 70. Horace Newcomb, “Toward a Television Aesthetic.” In H. Newcomb ed. Television: The Critical View, p. 486. Roger Rosenblatt, “Growing up on Television.” In Newcomb, ed. Television: The Critical View, pp. 373-374. “看圖” 問題參見,J. W. Chesebro, “The Media Reality: Epistemological Functions of Media in Cultural Systems.” Critical Studies in Mss Communication, 1 (1984), p. 120. John Fiske and J. Hartley. Reading Television. New York: Methuen, 1978, p. 39. “個人化” 問題參見,Dennis Porter, “Soap Time: Thoughts on a Commodity Art Form.” In H. Newcomb, ed. Television: The Critical View, p. 123. David L. Altheide, Media Power. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1985, p. 32.
Horace Newcomb所編的Television: The Critical View於2000年出到第六版,篇目相對於1982年版有了很多變動,顯示了這段期間電視批評的變化。
[註25]Doris A. Graber, 1990, “Seeing is Remembering: How Visuals Contribute to Learning from Television News.” Journal of Communication, 40 (1990): 134-155, p. 134.
[註26]Barry Brummett, Rhetorical Dimensions of Popular Culture, p. xiii.
[註27]Walter J. Ong, Ramus, Method and the Decay of Dialogue: From the Art of Discourse to the Art of Reason. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1958.
[註28]Paul Goring, The Rhetoric of Sensibility in Eighteenth-Century. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005.
[註29]I. A. Richards, The Philosophy of Rhetoric. New York: Oxford University Press, 1936. D. C. Bryant, “Rhetoric: Its Function and Its Scope.” Quarterly Journal of Speech, 39 (1953): 401-24. Kenneth Burke, A Rhetoric of Motives. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1969.
[註30]古斯塔夫·勒龐:《烏合之眾: 大眾心理研究》,馮克利譯,北京:中央編譯出版社,2004.
[註31]Barry Brummett, Rhetorical Dimensions of Popular Culture, p. 27.
[註32]Kenneth Burk, A Grammar of Motives. Berkeley: University of California Press [1945] 1969, p. 506-507.
[註33]Barry Brummett, Rhetorical Dimensions of Popular Culture, p. 27.
[註34]Barry Brummett, Rhetorical Dimensions of Popular Culture, p. 28.
[註35]D. Mumby and C. Spitzack, “Ideology and Television News: A Metaphoric Analysis of Political Stories.” Central States Speech Journal, 34 (1983): 162-171, p. 162.
[註36]Barry Brummett, Rhetorical Dimensions of Popular Culture, p. 28.
[註37]John Fiske, “The Discourses of TV Quiz Shows or, School + Luck = Success + Sex.” Central Studies in Mass Communication, 3 (1983): 139-150, p. 148.
[註38]John Fiske and John Hartley. Reading Television. New York: Methuen, 1978, p. 105.
[註39] T. Bennett, “Media, ‘Reality,’ Signification.” In M. Gurevitch, et al. eds. Culture, Society and the Media. New York: Methuen, 1982, pp. 297-298. David Morley, The “Nationwide” Audience: Structure and Decoding. London: British Film Institute, 1980.
[註40]W. Lance Bennett, News: The Politics of Illusion, p. 200.
[註41]W. Lance Bennett, News: The Politics of Illusion, pp. 201-206.
[註42]W. Lance Bennett, News: The Politics of Illusion, pp. 207-211.
[註43]W. Lance Bennett, News: The Politics of Illusion, pp. 211-214.
[註44]W. Lance Bennett, News: The Politics of Illusion, p. 206.
[註45]Barry Brummett, Rhetorical Dimensions of Popular Culture, p. 34.
[註46]Barry Brummett, Rhetorical Dimensions of Popular Culture, p. 28.
原刊《中國傳媒報告》2007年第4期,作者授權天益發布。
(愛思想網站 2008-04-24)
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