Lois Greenfield:40 Years Of Dance 哲學問題

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Comment by Host Studio on August 19, 2025 at 5:07pm

莱布尼兹《單子論》

第一部分 單純實體(第 1節—— 第 9節)

1.The Monad, of which we shall here speak, is nothing but a simple substance, which enters into compounds. By 『simple』 is meant 『without parts.』 (Theod. 10.)

我們這里所要談論的「單子」,不是別的而是構成複合物的單純實體,「單純」指的是「沒有部分」。(參見《神正論》第10節)

2. And there must be simple substances, since there are compounds; for a compound is nothing but a collection or aggregatum of simple things.

一定存在著單純實體,因為有複合物存在;複合物只是單純物的集合或堆積。

3.Now where there are no parts, there can be neither extension nor form [figure] nor divisibility. These Monads are the real atoms of nature and, in a word, the elements of things.

在沒有部分的地方,不可能有廣延、形狀和可分性。這些單子是自然的真正的原子,即事物的元素。

解釋:「實體」是西方哲學傳統中的核心概念,其基本含義是指,在事物變動不居的現象後面有一個不變的東西。萊布尼茨的實體概念強調「沒有部分」的「單純性」,即不具有量的規定性(廣延、形狀和可分性等),這是對早期近代哲學建立在機械力學基礎上的物質實體學說(物質是廣延或物質是原子)的批判,表現出了萊布尼茨對古代哲學的尊重和繼承。

值得注意的是,第二節中的「複合物只是單純物的集合或堆積」可以有兩種解釋,第一種是字面上的,即單子堆積在一起就構成了物質。但不佔空間的單子如何能夠堆積成佔有空間的物質呢?而且這樣一來,實體與現象的關係就成了堆積與被堆積的量的差別,這顯然是違背萊布尼茨哲學思想的。第二種解釋是唯心論的,指單子以某種方式構造出了物質,具體內容有點複雜,將在後面論述(第61節的解釋)。

單子(monad)一詞源於希臘文monas, 意指「個體」(unity)或「一」。在近代,吉歐達諾·布魯諾(Giordano Bruno)、亨利·摩爾(Henry More)、安妮·康韋(Anne Conway)、赫爾蒙特(F.M.von Helmont)也使用了這一術語。萊布尼茨的單子概念曾受到安妮·康韋和赫爾蒙特的直接影響。 值得注意的是,其他哲學家的單子往往指作為自然的基本要素的物理-心理統一體,萊布尼茨1690年首次使用單子概念時也是指這一意義,即由心靈和身體構成的單個的生命體,萊氏本人將之類比為亞里斯多德的形式-質料實體觀。但最遲在1695年的《新系統》中萊氏拋棄了這種亞里斯多德主義,認為真正的實體或單子只能是非廣延的精神,這標志著萊布尼茨哲學思想的真正定型和成熟,並在1714年的《單子論》中得到了最清楚的表達。

4. No dissolution of these elements need be feared, and there is no conceivable way in which a simple substance can be destroyed by natural means. (Theod. 89.)

不必擔心這些元素會消亡,因為不可想像單純實體會以自然的方式而被毀滅。(參見《神正論》第89節)

5. For the same reason there is no conceivable way in which a simple substance can come into being by natural means, since it cannot be formed by the combination of parts [composition].

同理,不可想像單純實體會以自然的方式而被產生,因為它不是由部分的組合而構成的。

6. Thus it may be said that a Monad can only come into being or come to an end all at once; that is to say, it can come into being only by creation and come to an end only by annihilation, while that which is compound comes into being or comes to an end by parts.

因而可以說,單子只能突然地產生或消亡;也就是說,它只能通過創造而產生,通過毀滅而消亡,而複合物則部分地產生或消亡。

解釋:所謂「以自然的方式」,即通過量的變化或部分的變化的方式,既然單子是沒有部分的單純實體,不具有量的規定性,單子就不能以自然的方式產生或消亡,只能由於上帝的超自然的奇跡而產生或消亡。以此,萊布尼茨將近代科學的量的分析限制在現象領域,而將本體界保留給哲學和宗教。

莱布尼兹《單子論》,桑靖宇翻譯/註釋;The Monadology (1714)by Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz [1646-1716],English edition translated by Robert Latta (1898); 中文翻譯/註釋:桑靖宇( 2008年初),原見:百度文庫)[中文翻譯/註釋:桑靖宇,男,1971年生,江西九江人。哲學博士,武漢大學哲學學院教授。1994年畢業於湖北大學政治教育系。1998年畢業於武漢大學哲學系,獲西方哲學碩士學位。1998——2001年為武漢大學哲學系博士生,獲得西方哲學博士學位。2001年留武漢大學任教。2003年晉升為副教授,2008——2009年,為美國Baylor大學哲學系訪問學者,2009年晉升為教授,2010年取得博士生導師資格,同年開始招收博士研究生。現為武漢大學哲學學院宗教學系博士生導師,武漢大學萊布尼茨研究中心成員,湖北省宗教研究會成員,中西比較哲學國際協會(ISCWP)成員。]

Comment by Host Studio on August 14, 2025 at 9:51am

6.Thus it may be said that a Monad can only come into being or come to an end all at once; that is to say, it can come into being only by creation and come to an end only by annihilation, while that which is compound comes into being or comes to an end by parts.

原譯:因而可以說,單子只能突然地產生或消亡;也就是說,它只能通過創造而產生,通過毀滅而消亡,而複合物則部分地產生或消亡。

原譯文將「it can come into being only by creation and come to an end only by annihilation」譯作「它只能通過創造而產生,通過毀滅而消亡」。我以為似乎不妥,提出以供探討:

首先,「come into being」原譯文譯作「產生」似有不妥。學界對作為西方哲學中核心概念的「be」應怎麼對譯,已有太多爭論,或譯作「存在」,或譯作「萬有」,甚至直接譯作「是」,但不管如何,至少可知這個詞不僅僅指代發生學意義上的「產生」。若回溯至亞里士多德,「be」一詞當指「一物之為一物」的原則性理據,故而我以為將「come into being」譯作「成其所是」更為恰當。

其次,「creation」「annihilation」都是帶有濃厚宗教色彩的詞匯,而原譯文似乎忽視了這一點,只平淡無奇地將之地譯作「創造」和「毀滅」。「create」本意應是指「神創」,同詞源的「creationism」「creationist」分別指「神創論」和「神創論者」即是一證,現代英語中用「create」表示通常意義上的「創造」應是一種派生或者說引申的用法(即人對神的模仿),故「creature」一詞嚴格說來也應該譯作「造物」而非自然科學意義上的「生物」。至於「annihilation」一詞,電子詞典將之譯為「大毀滅」、「大災難」,但這分明不是一個常用詞,如果我沒有記錯,《聖經》中是用這個詞指稱末日審判時的世界毀滅,故而也不是任何意義上的「災難」都可以使用這個詞。

結合《單子論》第5則:
For the same reason there is no conceivable way in which a simple substance can come into being by natural means, since it cannot be formed by the combination of parts [composition].(同理,不可想像單純實體會以自然的方式而被產生,因為它不是由部分的組合而構成的。)可知,萊布尼茨此處是想說:單子不能像自然物一樣自然地產生和消亡,而只能依靠超自然的上帝的創始而產生,依靠末日毀滅而消亡。可見,萊布尼茨此處用「creation」「annihilation」二詞,即已暗含單子只能由上帝產生和毀滅的意思,盡管文中只字未提「上帝」一詞,而原譯文「它只能通過創造而產生,通過毀滅而消亡」則全然體現不出這一點。

7.
Further, there is no way of explaining how a Monad can be altered in quality or internally changed by any other created thing; since it is impossible to change the place of anything in it or to conceive in it any internal motion which could be produced, directed, increased or diminished therein, although all this is possible in the case of compounds, in which there are changes among the parts. The Monads have no windows, through which anything could come in or go out. Accidents cannot separate themselves from substances nor go about outside of them, as the

① 可參見卡羅琳·麥西特《自然之死》第 可參見卡羅琳·麥西特《自然之死》第 可參見卡羅琳·麥西特《自然之死》第 可參見卡羅琳·麥西特《自然之死》第 11 章,第 章,第 2節,「 節,「 康韋、范·赫爾蒙特與萊布尼茨的單子論」,吳 」,吳 」,吳 國盛等譯,吉林人民出版社 19991999199919993

『sensible species』 of the Scholastics used to do. Thus neither substance nor accident can come into a Monad from outside.

而且,無法解釋單子如何可能被其他的創造物施以質的改變或內在的變化;因為不可能改變它內部的任何東西的位置,也不可想像在其中任何內部的變化能夠被產生、引導、增加或減少,而所有這些在複合物的情況下都是可能的,因為在其中變化是相關於部分的。單子沒有可供事物出入的窗戶。偶性不能脫離實體存在,不能游離於實體之外,像經院哲學家的「感性形式」①那樣。因而實體和偶性都不能從外部進入單子。

解釋:在此,萊布尼茨接受了近代哲學中流行的機械力學的思想,即一切作用都是相關於量的。既然單子沒有任何量的規定性,那麼它就不可能接受任何外界的作用和影響,「沒有可供事物出入的窗戶」,從而具有徹底的獨立自足性。

Comment by Host Studio on August 13, 2025 at 10:09am

8.Yet the Monads must have some qualities, otherwise they would not even be existing things. And if simple substances did not differ in quality, there would be absolutely no means of perceiving any change in things. For what is in the compound can come only from the simple elements it contains, and the Monads, if they had no qualities, would be indistinguishable from one another, since they do not differ in quantity. Consequently, space being a plenum, each part of space would always receive, in any motion, exactly the equivalent of what it already had, and no one state of things would be discernible from another.

然而,單子必須具有一些性質,否則它們就甚至不是存在物了。而且,如果單純實體不在性質上相區別,就根本沒有辦法來覺察事物的變化。因為存在於複合物中的東西,只能源於它所包含的簡單要素。而單子如果不在性質上有所不同的話,就不可能把它們區別開來,因為它們不能在量上相不同。因此,空間作為「充實」,在任何一個運動中,空間的每一部分只是接受它已具有的運動的等價物,事物的任何一種狀態都不能與其它狀態相區別了。

解釋:萊布尼茨首先確定單子必須具有一些性質,其次,單子的性質必須彼此不同,否則,經驗世界的變化和多樣性就不能得到說明,因為作為現象的複合物最終是由單純物的單子所決定的。與當時流行的自然哲學不同,萊布尼茨否認虛空的存在,並認為,如果單子之間沒有質的差別,那麼現象世界作為充滿同質物體的充實的空間,就不會有任何變化和區別了。

9.Indeed, each Monad must be different from every other. For in nature there are never two beings which are perfectly alike and in which it is not possible to find an internal difference, or at least a difference founded upon an intrinsic quality [denomination]. 

確實,每一單子都必須與其它單子相區別。因為在自然中決不會有兩個東西完全一樣,以至於在它們身上找不到內在的差異,或至少是建立在內在性質上的差異。

「感性形式」(sensible species):根據亞里斯多德的認識論,當感官受外物刺激時會形成「感性形式」,這種「感性形式」是對外界事物的反映和表象。阿奎那等經院哲學家接受了亞里斯多德」是對外界事物的反映和表象。亞里斯多德的這種理論。譯者注4

解釋:這就是萊布尼茨著名的「不可辨別者的同一性原則」(The principle of the identity of indiscernibles.)。


第二部分 單子的變化 (第10節——第18節)

Comment by Host Studio on August 2, 2025 at 4:31pm

10.I assume also as admitted that every created being, and consequently the created Monad, is subject to change, and further that this change is continuous in each.

我還認為以下觀點是理所當然的,即每一創造物,因而每一被創造的單子都是變化著的,而且這一變化在每一事物中都是持續不斷的。

11.
It follows from what has just been said, that the natural changes of the Monads come from an internal principle, since an external cause can have no influence upon their inner being. (Theod. 396, 400.)

由前可知,單子的自然變化源於一個內在的原則,因為外在的原因不能對它們的內部產生影響。(參見《神正論》第396節、第400節)

解釋:在早期近代哲學中,萊布尼茨以其動態的實體觀而獨樹一幟,在他看來,單子處於永恆運動之中,且這種運動源於自身。這對當時由於機械力學的影響而在哲學界流行的靜態的實體觀而言是一個有力的批判。

12.
But, besides the principle of the change, there must be a particular series of changes [un detail de ce qui change], which constitutes, so to speak, the specific nature and variety of the simple substances.

但是,除了變化的原則之外,還必須有一個變化的特殊系列,它構成了單純實體的特殊性和不同性。

13.
This particular series of changes should involve a multiplicity in the unit [unite] or in that which is simple. For, as every natural change takes place gradually, something changes and something remains unchanged; and consequently a simple substance must be affected and related in many ways, although it has no parts.

這一變化的特殊系列應該在單元或單純物中包涵多樣性。因為,每一自然的變化都是逐漸發生的,有些東西變化了,而另一些東西沒有變;從而,單純實體盡管沒有部分,它必須具有很多性質和關係。

解釋:所謂「變化的特殊系列」是指單子運動的整個過程。對萊布尼茨而言,單子既是「一」又是「多」。單子的「一」是指單子的沒有量的規定的單純性,單子的「多」一般指它必須具有若干的性質。值得注意的是,當萊布尼茨從「變化的特殊系列」來談單子的「多」時,意義比較獨特,側重於動態的、系統的角度。

Comment by Host Studio on July 26, 2025 at 11:52pm

14.The passing condition, which involves and represents a multiplicity in the unit [unite] or in the simple substance, is nothing but what is called Perception, which is to be distinguished from Apperception or Consciousness, as will afterwards appear. In this matter the Cartesian view is extremely defective, for it treats as non-existent those perceptions of which we are not consciously aware. This has also led them to believe that minds [esprits] alone are Monads, and that there are no souls of animals nor other Entelechies. Thus, like the crowd, they have failed to distinguish between a prolonged unconsciousness and absolute death, which has made them fall again into the Scholastic prejudice of souls entirely separate [from bodies], and has even confirmed ill-balanced minds in the opinion that souls are mortal.

這一在單元或單純實體中包涵並表現多樣性的暫時狀態正是所謂知覺,如下所說,知覺應該與統覺或意識區別開來。在這一點上笛卡爾派的觀點極其錯誤,因為他們把人們意識覺察不到的知覺視為是不存在。這也使他們認為只有心靈才是單子,而不存在動物的靈魂或其他的隱得來希。因而,他們像平常人一樣,不能把長期的無意識與嚴格的死亡區分開來,這使他們再次陷入經院哲學的偏見,使靈魂完全脫離軀體,甚至贊成那些心智不健全的人所持的靈魂有死的觀點。

解釋:萊布尼茨將作為精神實體的單子的一中之多的狀態稱為知覺。值得重視的是,當萊布尼茨把單子定義為精神時,他大大地拓展了精神的范圍:知覺不能等同於有意識的知覺,還應該包括整個無意識領域;精神不能等同於人的心靈,還應該包括「動物的靈魂或其他的隱得來希」。這樣一來,精神的疆界變得無比寬廣,從而得以真正成為世界的本體。

在此,萊布尼茨批判了笛卡爾派的否認「人們意識覺察不到的知覺」的存在、將精神等同於人的有意識的心靈的狹隘見解,認為這會將長期的無意識和嚴格的死亡混為一談。在萊布尼茨看來,軀體是無意識的知覺的某種產物,與被創造的單子不可分離,而否認無意識的知覺,必然會導致「靈魂完全脫離軀體」的錯誤見解。笛卡爾派的狹隘的心靈觀甚至會導向懷疑靈魂的永恆性,因為只有承認無意識的知覺,才能保證精神的持續不斷的存在。

15,The activity of the internal principle which produces change or passage from one perception to another may be called Appetition. It is true that desire [l'appetit] cannot always fully attain to the whole perception at which it aims, but it always obtains some of it and attains to new perceptions.

那種產生變化或從一個知覺向另一個知覺的過渡的內在原則的活動被稱作欲求。誠然,欲求不能完全達到它所指向的全部知覺,但他們總會有所收獲並達到新的知覺。

解釋:知覺和欲求是單子的兩個緊密聯系的根本規定。每個被創造的單子都以上帝的全知、全能和全善為其最終欲求目的,但這是不可能徹底達到的,因而每個單子都表現為永不停息的追求和運動。

16. We have in ourselves experience of a multiplicity in simple substance, when we find that the least thought of which we are conscious involves variety in its object. Thus all those who admit that the soul is a simple substance should admit this multiplicity in the Monad; and M. Bayle ought not to have found any difficulty in this, as he has done in his Dictionary, article 『Rorarius.』

當我們在我們所意識到的最細微的念頭中也能發現它包含著一些不同的對象時,我們就在自身體驗到了單純實體中的多樣性。因而所有那些承認靈魂是單純實體的人也應該承認單子中的這種多樣性;貝爾先生也不應該在此發現困難,如他在他的辭典「羅拉留」辭條中所做的那樣。

解釋:在此萊布尼茨以人的意識活動為例,再次論證單子的「一中之多」的特性:人的意識活動本身是「一」,意識活動總是有多樣性的內容則是「多」。

皮埃爾·貝(1647 –1706) ,是法國主張懷疑論的新教神學家在其《歷史與批判詞典》的 「羅拉留」(1485-1556,主張動物有理性)辭條中,以人的理性的軟弱無力這一懷疑主義思想批判了萊布尼茨的理性神學觀點。

Comment by Host Studio on July 25, 2025 at 6:55am

17.Moreover, it must be confessed that perception and that which depends upon it are inexplicable on mechanical grounds, that is to say, by means of figures and motions. And supposing there were a machine, so constructed as to think, feel, and have perception, it might be conceived as increased in size, while keeping the same proportions, so that one might go into it as into a mill. That being so, we should, on examining its interior, find only parts which work one upon another, and never anything by which to explain a perception. Thus it is in a simple substance, and not in a compound or in a machine, that perception must be sought for. Further, nothing but this (namely, perceptions and their changes) can be found in a simple substance. It is also in this alone that all the internal activities of simple substances can consist. (Theod. Pref. [E. 474; G. vi. 37].)

此外,必須承認,知覺以及依賴於知覺的東西,不能用機械的原因來解釋,也就是說,不能用形狀和運動來解釋。假設有一架機器,被制作得能夠思想、感受和擁有知覺,想像它在保持同一比例的情況下在尺寸上被放大,以至於人們可以像走進磨坊一樣進入它。在這種情況下,在考察它的內部的時候,我們只能看到一些部分作用於另一部分,而決找不到任何能夠解釋知覺的東西。因此,只能在單純實體中而非在複合物或機器中尋找知覺。況且,在單純實體中能被找到的只有這個(即知覺及其變化)。單純實體的全部內在運動也僅在於此。(參見《神正論》序言,[E. 474; G. vi. 37])

解釋:萊布尼茨此處的例子是指能夠知覺的機器是不可能存在的,因為作為實體的特性的知覺是一種質的規定,不能用機械論的量的觀點來解釋。

18.All simple substances or created Monads might be called Entelechies, for they have in them a certain perfection (echousi to enteles); they have a certain self-sufficiency (autarkeia) which makes them the sources of their internal activities and, so to speak, incorporeal automata. (Theod. 87.)

所有的單純實體或被創造的單子都可被稱為隱得來希,因為它們自身之內都具有某種完滿性;他們具有某種自足性,使得他們成為自身內在活動的源泉,也就是說,無形體的自動機。(參見《神正論》,第87節)

解釋:「隱得來希」在希臘文中原義指「完滿」、「完整」,亞里斯多德用「隱得來希」一詞表示從潛能到現實的運動,萊布尼茨的「隱得來希」強調單子的圓滿性和自足性,更接近該詞的本義。

單子或「隱得來希」的圓滿性和自足性是有限的,要不然就和上帝沒有區別了。單子為上帝所創造並被賦予了運動的原則,因而每個單子都是自我運動的、自足的,不需要任何外界的影響。

第三部分 單子的等級 (第19節—第30節)

19.If we are to give the name of Soul to everything which has perceptions and desires [appetits] in the general sense which I have explained, then all simple substances or created Monads might be called souls; but as feeling [le sentiment] is something more than a bare perception, I think it right that the general name of Monads or Entelechies should suffice for simple substances which have perception only, and that the name of Souls should be given only to those in which perception is more distinct, and is accompanied by memory. 

如果我們把靈魂一詞賦予具有我所解釋的一般意義的知覺和欲求的所有事物,那麼所有的單純實體或被創造的單子都可被稱作靈魂;但因為感受包含了比赤裸的知覺更多的東西,所以我同意單子或隱得來希這種一般的名稱對於僅僅具有知覺的單子而言是足夠的,靈魂這一名稱應該被給與那些具有更清晰的知覺、有記憶相伴隨的單子。 

解釋:萊布尼茨按知覺的清晰程度把單子分成三個等級:最低級的是赤裸的單子,只具有最含混的無意識的知覺;其次是靈魂(soul),具有有意識的知覺即感受,有記憶相伴隨;再次是心靈(mind)或精神(spirit),其知覺具有自我意識和理性。

20.For we experience in ourselves a condition in which we remember nothing and have no distinguishable perception; as when we fall into a swoon or when we are overcome with a profound dreamless sleep. In this state the soul does not perceptibly differ from a bare Monad; but as this state is not lasting, and the soul comes out of it, the soul is something more than a bare Monad. (Theod. 64.)

我們在自己身上體驗到一種情形,即我們對之沒有任何記憶且沒有任何可辨識的知覺;如我們陷入昏迷或深沉的無夢的睡眠的時候。在這種狀態下靈魂與赤裸的單子之間沒有可覺察的區別;但由於這一狀態是不持久的,靈魂會從中擺脫出來,靈魂是某種比赤裸的單子更豐富的東西。(參見《神正論》第64節)

Comment by Host Studio on July 23, 2025 at 10:10am

21.And it does not follow that in this state the simple substance is without any perception. That, indeed, cannot be, for the reasons already given; for it cannot perish, and it cannot continue to exist without being affected in some way, and this affection is nothing but its perception. But when there is a great multitude of little perceptions, in which there is nothing distinct, one is stunned; as when one turns continuously round in the same way several times in succession, whence comes a giddiness which may make us swoon, and which keeps us from distinguishing anything. Death can for a time put animals into this condition.

這並不意味著,在這一狀態中單純實體沒有任何知覺。根據前面給出的理由這是不可能的;因為它不能在沒有某種性質也就是知覺的情況下停止存在或繼續存在。可是當一個人具有無數微小的知覺,其中卻無一清晰,這時他就昏迷了;就象朝某個方向連續轉圈若干次,會使我們頭暈目眩而昏厥,不能分辨任何東西。死亡能夠在某段時間內把動物置於這種狀態。

22.
And as every present state of a simple substance is naturally a consequence of its preceding state, in such a way that its present is big with its future; (Theod. 350.)

既然單純實體的現在狀態是其前一狀態的自然結果,同樣地,它的現在就孕含了將來。(參見《神正論》第350節)

23.And as, on waking from stupor, we are conscious of our perceptions, we must have had perceptions immediately before we awoke, although we were not at all conscious of them; for one perception can in a natural way come only from another perception, as a motion can in a natural way come only from a motion. (Theod. 401-403.)

由於我們一從昏迷中覺醒過來就意識到知覺,我們在覺醒之前一定也具有知覺,盡管我們完全不能意識到它們;因為知覺只能以自然的方式源於另一(在先的)知覺,就象一個運動以自然的方式源於另一(在先的)運動(參見《神正論》第401-403節)

24.It thus appears that if we had in our perceptions nothing marked and, so to speak, striking and highly-flavoured, we should always be in a state of stupor. And this is the state in which the bare Monads are.

由此可知,如果我們知覺中沒有那些清晰的,也就是說,顯著的和極有特色的東西,我們就會永遠處於昏迷之中。而這正是赤裸的單子所處的狀態。

解釋:在第20-24節中,萊布尼茨認為人的無意識狀態與赤裸的單子是非常類似的,即都沒有任何清晰的知覺,從而說明赤裸的單子確實是存在的或至少其存在是可以設想的。萊布尼茨認為,無意識的知覺必然是存在的,否則單子就失去其恆存性而不成其為實體,人在昏迷或無夢的睡眠這些無意識狀態中就陷入死亡而無法蘇醒了。

Comment by Host Studio on July 21, 2025 at 10:49am

25.We see also that nature has given heightened perceptions to animals, from the care she has taken to provide them with organs, which collect numerous rays of light, or numerous undulations of the air, in order, by uniting them, to make them have greater effect. Something similar to this takes place in smell, in taste and in touch, and perhaps in a number of other senses, which are unknown to us. And I will explain presently how that which takes place in the soul represents what happens in the bodily organs.

我們也看到,大自然通過賦予動物以感覺器官而給與了它們強化的知覺,這些感覺器官把無數的光線和空氣的波動收集起來,通過把它們結合起來而使其具有更顯著的效果。同樣的事情也發生於嗅覺、味覺和觸覺,以及大概不為人所知的一些其他的感官。我不久將解釋,為何在靈魂中所發生的事能夠反映感官中所發生的事。

解釋:動物的單子(靈魂)因具有感覺器官而擁有了較清晰的、有意識的、有記憶的知覺。至於物質性的感官何以能夠與無形體的靈魂相溝通這一問題,萊布尼茨用他的「前定和諧」理論加以解釋。

26. Memory provides the soul with a kind of consecutiveness, which resembles [imite] reason, but which is to be distinguished from it. Thus we see that when animals have a perception of something which strikes them and of which they have formerly had a similar perception, they are led, by means of representation in their memory, to expect what was combined with the thing in this previous perception, and they come to have feelings similar to those they had on the former occasion. For instance, when a stick is shown to dogs, they remember the pain it has caused them, and howl and run away. (Theod. Preliminary Discourse, sec. 65.)

記憶為靈魂提供一種連貫性,這種連貫性雖類似於理性,卻有必要與理性區別開來。我們注意到,如果動物以前曾被某物毆打,當它們又見到此物時,記憶中的表象會驅使它們去期待在以往的知覺中與該物相連的東西,它們會產生與以前的情形中類似的感受。例如,當人向狗舉起棍子的時候,狗會記起棍子曾造成的痛苦,就嚎叫著跑開了。(參見《神正論》初步論述,第65節)

27. And the strength of the mental image which impresses and moves them comes either from the magnitude or the number of the preceding perceptions. For often a strong impression produces all at once the same effect as a long-formed habit, or as many and oft-repeated ordinary perceptions.

那些刺激並驅動它們的心理印象的力量源於以往知覺的強度或數量。因為一個強烈的印象常立即產生與長期形成的習慣或許多經常重復的普通知覺相同的效果。

解釋:記憶使得動物能夠將特定的知覺聯系在一起形成習慣性的聯想,從而使動物的行為具有某種一貫性。

Comment by Host Studio on July 10, 2025 at 9:02am

28. In so far as the concatenation of their perceptions is due to the principle of memory alone, men act like the lower animals, resembling the empirical physicians, whose methods are those of mere practice without theory. Indeed, in three-fourths of our actions we are nothing but empirics. For instance, when we expect that there will be daylight to-morrow, we do so empirically, because it has always so happened until now. It is only the astronomer who thinks it on rational grounds.

就其知覺的連貫性僅在於記憶的原則而言,人的行為類似於動物,就象經驗主義的醫生,只有實踐而缺乏理論。實際上,我們在自身的四分之三的行為上都是經驗主義者。例如,當我們預期明天會有白晝的時候,我們只是憑經驗,因為直到目前事情一直是這樣的。只有天文學家才能以理性的根據對此進行思考。

解釋:作為理性主義者,萊布尼茨認為只有普遍性的理性知識才使人與動物區別開來,人的經驗與動物的聯想並沒有本質不同。

29. But it is the knowledge of necessary and eternal truths that distinguishes us from the mere animals and gives us Reason and the sciences, raising us to the knowledge of ourselves and of God. And it is this in us that is called the rational soul or mind [esprit].

但只有必然的、永恆的真理才將我們與單純的動物區分開來,給予我們理性和科學,將我們提升到具有關於我們自身和上帝的知識。這就是我們之內所謂的理性靈魂或心靈。

30. It is also through the knowledge of necessary truths, and through their abstract expression, that we rise to acts of reflexion, which make us think of what is called I, and observe that this or that is within us;and thus, thinking of ourselves, we think of being, of substance, of the simple and the compound, of the immaterial, and of God Himself, conceiving that what is limited in us is in Him without limits. And these acts of reflexion furnish the chief objects of our reasonings. (Theod. Pref. [E. 469; G. vi. 27].)

也正是憑借必然真理的知識以及它們的抽象表達,我們才提升到具有反思活動,這使我們能夠思維所謂「自我」,並觀察到這或那處於「我們」之中;就這樣,通過思維自我,我們也就思維到存在、實體,思維到單純物和複合物,以及非實在之物和上帝自身,並設想在我們身上有限的卻會在上帝之中沒有限制。這些反思的活動為我們(當前的形而上學)的推理提供了主要對象。(參見《神正論》前言,[E. 469; G. vi. 27])

解釋:作為理性靈魂或心靈,憑借著對必然真理的理性知識的認識,而擁有了反思活動,具有了自我意識,並進而獲得了有關存在、實體、複合物、上帝等的哲學真理。值得注意的是,在萊布尼茨那里,自我意識與理性的反思能力緊密相連、密不可分,而對自我意識的反思則是形而上學的源泉。作為德國哲學之父,萊布尼茨的這種注重主體性的哲學傾向對德國古典哲學的發展有著非常深遠的影響。

第四部分 理性的兩大原則和兩種真理
(第31節—第37節)

31. Our reasonings are grounded upon two great principles, that of contradiction, in virtue of which we judge false that which involves a contradiction, and true that which is opposed or contradictory to the false; (Theod. 44, 169.)

我們的推理建立在兩大原則之上,其一為矛盾律,借助於這一原則,我們將包含矛盾者判斷為假,並將與假的相對立或相矛盾的判斷為真。(參見《神正論》第44節,第169節)

Comment by Host Studio on July 5, 2025 at 4:42pm

32.And that of sufficient reason, in virtue of which we hold that there can be no fact real or existing, no statement true, unless there be a sufficient reason, why it should be so and not otherwise, although these reasons usually cannot be known by us. (Theod. 44, 196.)

其二為充足理由律,借助於這一原則,我們認為,除非有為什麼是這樣而不是那樣的充足理由,否則就沒有事實是真實的或存在的,沒有陳述是正確的,盡管這些理由常常不為我們所知。(參見《神正論》第44節,第196節)

33.There are also two kinds of truths, those of reasoning and those of fact. Truths of reasoning are necessary and their opposite is impossible; truths of fact are contingent and their opposite is possible. When a truth is necessary, its reason can be found by analysis, resolving it into more simple ideas and truths, until we come to those which are primary. (Theod. 170, 174, 189, 280-282, 367. Abrege, Object. 3.)

也存在著兩種真理,即推理的真理和事實的真理。推理的真理是必然的,其反面是不可能的;事實的真理是偶然的,其反面是可能的。當某個真理是必然的,其理由就可以通過分析而發現,可以將它分解為更簡單的觀念和真理,直到發現那些最基本的東西。(參見《神正論》第170節、第174節、第189節、第280-282節、第367節。節略,異議3)

解釋:萊布尼茨的理性的兩大原則矛盾律和充足理由律分別對應於兩種不同的真理,即推理的真理和事實的真理,或者必然的真理和偶然的真理。在他看來,推理的真理或必然真理指是指必然為真的同一性的陳述,即通過人的理性分析,可發現該陳述的謂詞包含語主詞之中。由此可知,與之相應的矛盾律的本質就在於a﹦a,因而萊布尼茨有時又將矛盾律稱為同一律(principle of identity)。他認為,邏輯學和數學就是建立在矛盾律或同一律的基礎上的,是相關於邏輯世界或可能世界的。

而事實的真理或偶然的真理則是相關於現實世界的陳述,並不必然為真,其反面總是可能的。例如,昨天雖然沒有下雨,但昨天也完全有可能下雨,這在邏輯上並不包含矛盾。也就是說,關於現實世界的陳述,至少就人的理性而言,不能視作謂詞包含於主詞之中的同一性陳述。那麼事實真理或偶然真理的真理性就不是源於矛盾律,而必須另有來源,即充足理由律。

34.It is thus that in Mathematics speculative Theorems and practical Canons are reduced by analysis to Definitions, Axioms and Postulates.

因而,在數學上思辨的原理和實踐的法則,可通過分析而歸結為定義、公理和公設。

愛墾網 是文化創意人的窩;自2009年7月以來,一直在挺文化創意人和他們的創作、珍藏。As home to the cultural creative community, iconada.tv supports creators since July, 2009.

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