[1] 該例子的原文可參考:“this is because the racehorse and the plow horse do not have the same affect nor the same capacity for being affected; the plow horse has affects in common rather with the ox”(Spinoza: Practical Philosophy 124).而他在《千重台》也有類似的說法:“a race-horse is more different from a workhorse than a workhorse is from an ox” ( 257)。
[2] 任何關於《斯賓諾莎的實踐哲學》的中譯,筆者參考馮炳昆之譯文,然而會依行文的脈絡而有些調整。
[3] 關於情感素的討論,主要在於《千重台》中的頁256-260。
[4] 在其《電影1》中,德勒茲指出,力量(power / puissance)是« expression of a power which passes from one quality to another »。而質性(quality)是« expression of a quality common to several different things. » (91 ; [法文版]130)
[5] 為求行文方便,筆者暫將以下的專有名詞譯為如下:「percept=感知物」;「perception=感知」;「affect=情感素」;「affection=情感」;「sensation=感覺」前者通常是指一種情感較細微的元素,而後者(+tion)的詞語通常是指該情感已變成一種較為穩固,並且主體性的情感狀態(state of emotions)。
[6] 參考« it is the percept or affect of the material itself, the smile of oil, the gesture of fired clay, the thrust of metal, the crouch of Romanesque stone, and the ascent of Gothic stone » (166 ;法文156)
[7] 參考« the aim of art is to wrest the percept from perceptions of objects and the states of a perceiving subject, to wrest the affect from affections as the transition from one state to another : to extract a bloc of sensations, a pure being of sensations » (167 ;法文158)
Buchanan, Brett. Onto-ethologies: The Animal Environments of Uexküll, Heidegger, Merleau-Ponty, and Deleuze. Albany: SUNY P, 2008.
Crawford, Lucas. “Transgender without Organs? Mobilizing a Geo-Affective Theory of Gender Modification.” WSQ: Woman''s Studies Quarterly 36: 3&4 (Fall/Winter), 2008. 127-143.
Deleuze, Gilles. Cinema 1: The Movement-Image. Trans. Hugh Tomlinson and Robert Galeta. Minneapolis: U of Minnesota P, 1986.
---. Expressionism in Philosophy: Spinoza. Trans. Martin Joughin. New York: Zone Books, 1990.
---. Spinoza: Practical Philosophy. Trans. Robert Hurley. San Francisco: City Lights, 1988.
---.《斯賓諾莎的實踐哲學》馮炳昆譯•北京:商務印書館,2005•
---. and Félix Guattari. A Thousand Plateaus: Capitalism and Schizophrenia. Trans. Brian Massumi. Minneapolis: U of Minnesota P, 1987.
---. and Claire Parnet. Dialogues. Trans. Hugh Tomlinson and Barbara Habberjam. New York: Columbia UP, 1987.
Delourme, Chantal and Jean-Jacques Lecercle. “Affect.” Le vocabulaire de Gilles Deleuze. Eds. Robert Sasso and Arnaud Villani. Nice: Centre de recherches d''histoire des idées, 2003. 23-33.
Lèbre, Jérome. Hegel à l''epreuve de la philosophie contemporaine.Deleuze, Lyotard, Derrida. Paris : Ellipses, 2002.
Lefebvre, Alexander. The Image of Law: Deleuze, Bergson, Spinoza. Stanford: Stanford UP, 2008.
Lorraine, Tamsin. Irigaray and Deleuze: Experiments in Visceral Philosophy. Ithaca: Cornell UP, 1999.
Massumi, Brian. Parables for the Virtual: Movement, Affect, Sensation. Durham: Duke UP, 2002.
Manning, Erin. Politics of Touch: Sense, Movement, Sovereignty. Minneapolis: U of Minnesota P, 2007.
Moraru, Christian. “Touching: Proximity, Remove, and the Measure of Things.” Symplokē 14.1-2 (2006): 306-10.
Patton, Paul. Deleuze and the Political. London: Routledge, 2000.
Thrift, Nigel. “Intensities of Feeling: Towards a Spatial Politics of Affect.” Geografiska Annaler 86 B.11(2004): 57-78.
在《電影1》中,德勒茲說,「情感素是一種實質,也就是力量或質性[4]。它就是被表達的東西(exprimé ; expressed)」(97)。當情感素作用於一個臉部,或是臉部的特寫,其臉部的特寫不是對某一個部分的物化。臉部的特寫可以使其影像(image)脫離出其時空座標,如此一來,便能召喚出被表達的純粹情感素。(96) Ronald Bogue更進一步地說:
The close-up is the face in that the close-up facializes, or converts a concrete entity into a decontextualized immobile surface with motor tendencies that expresses an affective quality/power. (Bogue 79; emphasis original)
在德勒茲與瓜達西合著的《何謂哲學 ?》中,他們在該第七章<感知物,情感素與概念>[5]中,對情感素也有精確的說法,主要以文學及繪畫的文本來開始該思想。他們認為,藝術並非是概念、感知物 (perception) 或情感 (affection) 的事物,而是關於感知物,情感素的事。他們是非主體 (non subjectifs) 的、非人類的,並且不會屈從於時間之中。對德-瓜而言,美學並不是與感知(avec perception) 一塊的觀看,而是與感覺(avec sensation)的關看。該感覺是特異的(singular),雜糅著感知物與情感素。感覺存在於藝術作品的材料之中[6]。藝術作品的角色在於萃取 (extraire) 感知與情感的感覺聚塊 (un bloc de sensation aux perception et affections),並且提取出其感知物與情感素(arracher des percepts et des affects)[7]。情感素也可以被理解為「流變人類的非人類」(un devenir non-humain de l''homme / man''s nonhuman becoming),所以藝術家是情感素的創造者,陌生(inconnu)情感素的締造者(例如在《白鯨記》中,Achab 船長的流變成鯨魚;在《呼嘯山莊》中,連結Heathcliff與Catherine的狂暴的情感素) (編譯自Delourme & Lecercle 31) 。
總結與展望
總括而言,情感素係為一身體與其他身體能產生關係與連結的能力;它就是一個連結點,界於中間,並且不會淪為主體或一種同質的統一體。Crawford在其文章<無器官的跨性別乎?>中,即用情感素來討論跨性別的解套方式,並搗毀在二元男/女定義下的身份認同與自我:“affect is the body''s capacity to undermine our best attempts at deciding on identities and selves” (Crawford 133; emphasis original)。若按史-德的思想脈絡而言,我們應該去質疑舊有本質化對一生命體的定義與命名,並且強調一個身體與其他身體所能產生的生活樣式或關係。
再者,關於德勒茲思想對情感素的價值,Delourme與Lecercle兩人的觀點詳述如下。首先,情感素是一種肯定的力量 (puissance d''affirmation)。對德氏而言,肯定的力量乃是反對精神分析的命題,或某些像里歐塔或阿岡本的看法,他認為情感素與創傷並無直接的關係,也跟失去的原始經驗毫無瓜葛。德氏認為,情感素就如同生命的力量(「用歡愉來感染,並且倍增實驗或包裹最大值肯定力量的情感素」, 德勒茲在其Dialogues 頁76如此寫道)。這個概念加入了史賓諾莎的肯定性,同時,也加入了生存力量 (puissance d''être) 的肯定性。情感素不該被設想成一種品質、述語(prédicat),而是一種包裹所有生活模式(tous les modes du vivant)的力量與關係。
The important thing is to understand life, each living individuality, not as a form, or a development of form, but as a complex relation between differential velocities, between deceleration and acceleration of particles. A composition of speeds and slownesses on a plane of immanence” (Spinoza 123)
We know nothing about a body until we know what it can do, in other words, what its affects are, how they can or cannot enter into composition with other affects, with the affects of another body, either to destroy that body or to be destroyed by it, either to exchange actions and passions with it or to join with it in composing a more powerful body. (ATP 257)
同時,《千重台》的英譯者,同時也是歐陸思想專家Brian Massumi即表示:
“He [Spinoza] was referring to a body''s capacity to enter into relations of movement and rest. This capacity he spoke of as a power (or potential) to affect or be affected. The issue, after sensation, perception, and memory, is affect. ‘Relation between movement and rest'' is another way of saying ‘transition''” (Massumi 15).
「情感素」這個詞乃是從史賓諾莎(Spinoza)的思想所開展出的論述。在史賓諾莎–德勒茲(以下簡稱「史-德」)的思想裡,「情感素」係為生命的、非人稱的力量 (puissance de vie non personnelle),往往超越世俗舊有定義下的生命個體(Delourme & Lecercle 32)。在此舊有定義下的生命個體,其狀態是靜止不動的。
克里斯蒂瓦的“语言的他者(the Other in language)”概念,可以用于分析地方感性中的陌生化体验。通过将地方看作是他者,通过符号和文化的陌生化,个体可以在重新发现地方的过程中,感受到深层次的情感连接。这种陌生化不仅让人们重新认识地方的独特性,还激发了新的情感和认同,这与段義孚所提到的地方感性相一致,即通过陌生和熟悉的对比,深化对地方的情感体验。
多重性與生成(Multiplicity and Becoming) 流散族群的存在是一種不斷變化和生成的狀態。作為一個跨越國界、文化、語言和歷史的群體,他們不是一個單一的、固定的實體,而是不斷在新的社會文化環境中重新定義和再生。這與德勒茲的多重性(multiplicity)概念相契合。德勒茲認為,事物不是單一的,而是由無數潛在可能性和關系構成的,流散族群的文化和身份正是處於這種多重性之中,不斷生成新的身份認同、文化實踐和社會關係。
身體作為力量流動的場域(Body as a Field of Forces and Affects) 在德勒茲的「無器官身體」概念中,身體被視為一個力量、欲望和情感流動的場域,而非一個固定的生物學實體。流散族群也可以看作是這種流動的文化與情感場域。他們的存在與歷史往往受到移民、流離失所、文化交流與沖突的影響,成為各種力量和欲望的交匯點。在新的文化環境中,流散族群的文化傳統、語言、宗教和社會結構與新的社會力量發生交織,形成一種新的流動性和互動性。
以下「意念科學」中常見的論點,與德勒茲的「平面」、「無器官身體」(Body without Organs)和「皺褶」(Fold)等核心概念可能聯系起來。下面將逐一分析這些概念與德勒茲哲學的關係:
「宇宙有一種無所不在的能量,稱之為『生命體能量』」:德勒茲的「平面」(Plane of Immanence)恰好可以解釋這種無所不在的能量概念。在德勒茲的哲學中,平面指的是一種存在的統一場域,所有的生命和物質都在這個平面上共存、相互作用,不存在等級劃分。這與「生命體能量」遍佈宇宙、連接萬物的觀點相符,所有的事物都在同一個平面上運作,並且能量是這種運作的基礎。
Sara Ahmed 在 2004 年的著作《情感的文化政治》(The Cultural Politics of Emotion)中,提出了關於情感在社會和政治生活中的核心作用的獨特觀點。她的論點集中在情感如何在社會關係、身份建構和權力結構中發揮作用,情感不僅是個人的內部體驗,還參與了更廣泛的社會和文化過程:
Sara Ahmed 的《情感的文化政治》通過細致的理論分析,展示了情感不僅是個人內在的體驗,更是複雜的社會、文化和政治力量。她強調情感的社會建構性以及它們如何被用於構建社會邊界、維持或挑戰權力結構。Ahmed 通過對情感流動、附著性和指向性的分析,揭示了情感在身份認同、政治動員和社會互動中的核心作用。
Channel your affect,transform it into creative energy. 從被操控的情緒,到創造性的情動管理。
文創建議:「Com-emory」與地方文化的情動詮釋
陳明發博士-愛墾網素來提倡的「Com-emory」概念,正好可以結合列維納斯的面容倫理與情動參與。如何讓地方文創不只是「產品」,而是一種引發記憶與情感共振的文化行動?如果我們的文化創意能夠轉化人們的情動,使他們在地方感(sense of place)中重新找回情感的根源,那麼文創就不僅是商品,而是一種詩意的倫理實踐。
1. 由「被情感操弄」到「管理情動」 首先,加西亞(特別是在2016年出版的《The Life Intense—A Modern Obsession》中)指出,現代社會讓我們的情感變得極度強烈(intense),這種強烈可能是一種操弄,讓我們陷入無止境的興奮、憤怒、焦慮、痛苦或快感之中。然而,他並不是要我們拒絕情感,而是要我們理解並學會駕馭情動的力量,避免成為它的奴隸。 這與佛洛伊德的「力必多」(Libidinal Politics)相呼應。
89.It may also be said that God as Architect satisfies in all respects God as Lawgiver, and thus that sins must bear their penalty with them, through the order of nature, and even in virtue of the mechanical structure of things; and similarly that noble actions will attain their rewards by ways which, on the bodily side, are mechanical, although this cannot and ought not always to happen immediately.
90 Finally, under this perfect government no good action would be unrewarded and no bad one unpunished, and all should issue in the well-being of the good, that is to say, of those who are not malcontents in this great state, but who trust in Providence, after having done their duty, and who love and imitate, as is meet, the Author of all good, finding pleasure in the contemplation of His perfections, as is the way of genuine 『pure love,』 which takes pleasure in the happiness of the beloved. This it is which leads wise and virtuous people to devote their energies to everything which appears in harmony with the presumptive or antecedent will of God, and yet makes them content with what God actually brings to pass by His secret, consequent and positive [decisive] will, recognizing that if we could sufficiently understand the order of the universe, we should find that it exceeds all the desires of the wisest men, and that it is impossible to make it better than it is, not only as a whole and in general but also for ourselves in particular, if we are attached, as we ought to be, to the Author of all, not only as to the architect and efficient cause of our being, but as to our master and to the final cause, which ought to be the whole aim of our will, and which can alone make our happiness. (Theod. Pref. 134,ad fin., 278.)
解釋:萊布尼茨引用了經院哲學的兩個重要術語,即上帝的假定的、在先的意志(presumptive or antecedent will)和上帝的結果的和決定(consequent and positive will)的意志。上帝的假定的、在先的意志是指上帝主觀上希望人類在各方面都得到最大的幸福;上帝的結果的和決定的意志是指由於世界和人的局限性,以及個體與個體之間、整體和部分之間還有過去、現在與將來之間必須相協調的極端複雜性,上帝在客觀上只能給予人類在現實條件制約之下的盡可能多的幸福。上帝的結果的和決定的意志不是人類的有限的理智所能夠認識和預料的,因此,賢明之士盡人事而聽天命,在行動時遵循上帝的假定的、在先的意志,為全人類的幸福而努力,無論其結果如何都欣然接受,因為這是上帝的結果的和決定的意志的體現。
(莱布尼兹《單子論》,桑靖宇翻譯/註釋( 2008年初);The Monadology (1714)by Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz [1646-1716],English edition translated by Robert Latta (1898); 作者單位:武漢大學哲學學院教授,原見:百度文庫)
83.Among other differences which exist between ordinary souls and minds [esprits], some of which differences I have already noted, there is also this: that souls in general are living mirrors or images of the universe of created things, but that minds are also images of the Deity or Author of nature Himself, capable of knowing the system of the universe, and to some extent of imitating it through architectonic ensamples [echantillons], each mind being like a small divinity in its own sphere. (Theod. 147.)
84.It is this that enables spirits [or minds—esprits] to enter into a kind of fellowship with God, and brings it about that in relation to them He is not only what an inventor is to his machine (which is the relation of God to other created things), but also what a prince is to his subjects, and, indeed, what a father is to his children.
85. Whence it is easy to conclude that the totality [assemblage] of all spirits [esprits] must compose the City of God, that is to say, the most perfect State that is possible, under the most perfect of Monarchs. (Theod. 146; Abrege, Object. 2.)
86. This City of God, this truly universal monarchy, is a moral world in the natural world, and is the most exalted and most divine among the works of God; and it is in it that the glory of God really consists, for He would have no glory were not His greatness and His goodness known and admired by spirits [esprits]. It is also in relation to this divine City that God specially has goodness, while His wisdom and His power are manifested everywhere.
87. As we have shown above that there is a perfect harmony between the two realms in nature, one of efficient, and the other of final causes, we should here notice also another harmony between the physical realm of nature and the moral realm of grace, that is to say, between God, considered as Architect of the mechanism [machine] of the universe and God considered as Monarch of the divine City of spirits [esprits]. (Theod. 62, 74, 112, 118, 130, 247,248.)
78.These principles have given me a way of explaining naturally the union or rather the mutual agreement [conformite] of the soul and the organic body. The soul follows its own laws, and the body likewise follows its own laws; and they agree with each other in virtue of the pre-established harmony between all substances, since they are all representations of one and the same universe. (Theod. Pref. 340, 352, 353, 358.)
79. Souls act according to the laws of final causes through appetitions, ends, and means. Bodies act according to the laws of efficient causes or motions. And the two realms, that of efficient causes and that of final causes, are in harmony with one another.
80. Descartes recognized that souls cannot impart any force to bodies, because there is always the same quantity of force in matter. Nevertheless he was of opinion that the soul could change the direction of bodies. But that is because in his time it was not known that there is a law of nature which affirms also the conservation of the same total direction in matter. Had Descartes noticed this he would have come upon my system of pre-established harmony. (Theod. Pref. 22, 59-61, 63, 66, 345-348, 354, 355.)
81. According to this system bodies act as if (to suppose the impossible) there were no souls, and souls act as if there were no bodies, and both act as if each influenced the other.
82. As regards minds [esprits] or rational souls, though I find that what I have just been saying is true of all living beings and animals (namely that animals and souls come into being when the world begins and no more come to an end that the world does), yet there is this peculiarity in rational animals, that their spermatic animalcules, so long as they are only spermatic, have merely ordinary or sensuous [sensitive] souls; but when those which are chosen [elus], so to speak, attain to human nature through an actual conception, their sensuous souls are raised to the rank of reason and to the prerogative of minds [esprits]. (Theod. 91, 397.)
73.It also follows from this that there never is absolute birth [generation] nor complete death, in the strict sense, consisting in the separation of the soul from the body. What we call births [generations] are developments and growths, while what we call deaths are envelopments and diminutions.
74.Philosophers have been much perplexed about the origin of forms, entelechies, or souls; but nowadays it has become known, through careful studies of plants, insects, and animals, that the organic bodies of nature are never products of chaos or putrefaction, but always come from seeds, in which there was undoubtedly some preformation; and it is held that not only the organic body was already there before conception, but also a soul in this body, and, in short, the animal itself; and that by means of conception this animal has merely been prepared for the great transformation involved in its becoming an animal of another kind. Something like this is indeed seen apart from birth [generation], as when worms become flies and caterpillars become butterflies. (Theod. Pref.86,89, 90, 187, 188, 397,403.)
75.The animals, of which some are raised by means of conception to the rank of larger animals, may be called spermatic, but those among them which are not so raised but remain in their own kind (that is, the majority) are born, multiply, and are destroyed like the large animals, and it is only a few chosen ones [elus] that pass to a greater theatre.
76.But this is only half of the truth, and accordingly I hold that if an animal never comes into being by natural means
77.Thus it may be said that not only the soul (mirror of an indestructible universe) is indestructible, but also the animal itself, though its mechanism [machine] may often perish in part and take off or put on an organic slough [des depouilles organiques].
71.But it must not be imagined, as has been done by some who have misunderstood my thought, that each soul has a quantity or portion of matter belonging exclusively to itself or attached to it for ever, and that it consequently owns other inferior living beings, which are devoted for ever to its service. For all bodies are in a perpetual flux like rivers, and parts are entering into them and passing out of them continually.
72. Thus the soul changes its body only by degrees, little by little, so that it is never all at once deprived of all its organs; and there is often metamorphosis in animals, but never metempsychosis or transmigration of souls; nor are there souls entirely separate [from bodies] nor unembodied spirits [genies sans corps]. God alone is completely without body. (Theod. 90, 124.)
67. Each portion of matter may be conceived as like a garden full of plants and like a pond full of fishes. But each branch of every plant, each member(orga n)of every animal, each drop of its liquid parts is also some such garden or pond.
68. And though the earth and the air which are between the plants of the garden, or the water which is between the fish of the pond, be neither plant nor fish; yet they also contain plants and fishes, but mostly so minute as to be imperceptible to us.
69. Thus there is nothing fallow, nothing sterile, nothing dead in the universe, no chaos, no confusion save in appearance, somewhat as it might appear to be in a pond at a distance, in which one would see a confused movement and, as it were, a swarming of fish in the pond, without separately distinguishing the fish themselves. (Theod. Pref. [E. 475 b; 477 b; G. vi. 40, 44].)
因而,在宇宙中沒有任何荒蕪的、貧瘠的或死亡的東西,沒有任何混沌和混亂,除了表面現象之外。有些像遠處的池塘所顯現的那樣,人們只能遠遠看到魚的群集和混亂的運動,而不能看清魚本身。(參見《神正論》,前言,[E. 475 b; 477 b; G. vi. 40, 44])
70. Hence it appears that each living body has a dominant entelechy, which in an animal is the soul; but the members of this living body are full of other living beings, plants, animals, each of which has also its dominant entelechy or soul.
63.The body belonging to a Monad (which is its entelechy or its soul) constitutes along with the entelechy what may be called a living being, and along with the soul what is called an animal. Now this body of living being or of an animal is always organic; for, as every Monad is, in its own way, a mirror of the universe, and as the universe is ruled according to a perfect order, there must also be order in that which represents it, i.e. in the perceptions of the soul, and consequently there must be order in the body, through which the universe is represented in the soul. (Theod. 403.)
64.Thus the organic body of each living being is a kind of divine machine or natural automaton, which infinitely surpasses all artificial automata. For a machine made by the skill of man is not a machine in each of its parts. For instance, the tooth of a brass wheel has parts or fragments which for us are not artificial products, and which do not have the special characteristics of the machine, for they give no indication of the use for which the wheel was intended. But the machines of nature, namely, living bodies, are still machines in their smallest parts ad infinitum. It is this that constitutes the difference between nature and art, that is to say, between the divine art and ours. (Theod. 134, 146, 194, 403.)
65.And the Author of nature has been able to employ this divine and infinitely wonderful power of art, because each portion of matter is not only infinitely divisible, as the ancients observed, but is also actually subdivided without end, each part into further parts, of which each has some motion of its own; otherwise it would be impossible for each portion of matter to express the whole universe. (Theod. Prelim., Disc. 70, and 195.)
61.And compounds are in this respect analogous with [symbolisent avec] simple substances. For all is a plenum and thus all matter is connected together and in the plenum every motion has an effect upon distant bodies in proportion to their distance, so that each body not only is affected by those which are in contact with it and in some way feels the effect of everything that happens to them, but also is mediately affected by bodies adjoining those with which it itself is in immediate contact. Wherefore it follows that this inter-communication of things extends to any distance, however great. And consequently every body feels the effect of all that takes place in the universe, so that he who sees all might read in each what is happening everywhere, and even what has happened or shall happen, observing in the present that which is far off as well in time as in place: sympnoia panta, as Hippocrates said. But a soul can read in itself only that which is there represented distinctly; it cannot all at once unroll everything that is enfolded in it, for its complexity is infinite.
62. Thus, although each created Monad represents the whole universe, it represents more distinctly the body which specially pertains to it, and of which it is the entelechy; and as this body expresses the whole universe through the connexion of all matter in the plenum, the soul also represents the whole universe in representing this body, which belongs to it in a special way. (Theod. 400.)
58.And by this means there is obtained as great variety as possible, along with the greatest possible order; that is to say, it is the way to get as much perfection as possible. (Theod. 120, 124, 241, 214-243, 275.)
59.Besides, no hypothesis but this (which I venture to call proved) fittingly exalts the greatness of God; and this Monsieur Bayle recognized when, in his Dictionary (article Rorarius), he raised objections to it, in which indeed he was inclined to think that I was attributing too much to God—more than it is possible to attribute. But he was unable to give any reason which could show the impossibility of this universal harmony, according to which every substance exactly expresses all others through the relations it has with them.
60.Further, in what I have just said there may be seen the reasons a priori why things could not be otherwise than they are. For God in regulating the whole has had regard to each part, and in particular to each Monad, whose nature being to represent, nothing can confine it to the representing of only one part of things; though it is true that this representation is merely confused as regards the variety of particular things [le detail] in the whole universe, and can be distinct only as regards a small part of things, namely, those which are either nearest or greatest in relation to each of the Monads; otherwise each Monad would be a deity. It is not as regards their object, but as regards the different ways in which they have knowledge of their object, that the Monads are limited. In a confused way they all strive after the infinite, the whole; but they are limited and differentiated through the degrees of their distinct perceptions.
52.Accordingly, among created things, activities and passivities are mutual. For God, comparing two simple substances, finds in each reasons which oblige Him to adapt the other to it, and consequently what is active in certain respects is passive from another point of view; active in so far as what we distinctly know in it serves to explain [rendre raison de] what takes place in another, and passive in so far as the explanation [raison] of what takes place in it is to be found in that which is distinctly known in another. (Theod. 66.)
53. Now, as in the Ideas of God there is an infinite number of possible universes, and as only one of them can be actual, there must be a sufficient reason for the choice of God, which leads Him to decide upon one rather than another. (Theod. 8, 10, 44, 173, 196-199,225, 414-416.)
54. And this reason can be found only in the fitness [convenance], or in the degrees of perfection, that these worlds possess, since each possible thing has the right to aspire to existence in proportion to the amount of perfection it contains in germ. (Theod. 74, 130,167, 201, 345-347,350,352,354.)
55. Thus the actual existence of the best that wisdom makes known to God is due to this, that His goodness makes Him choose it, and His power makes Him produce it. (Theod. 8, 78, 80, 84, 119, 204, 206, 208. Abrege, Object. 1 and 8.)
56. Now this connexion or adaptation of all created things to each and of each to all, means that each simple substance has relations which express all the others, and, consequently, that it is a perpetual living mirror of the universe. (Theod. 130, 360.)
57. And as the same town, looked at from various sides, appears quite different and becomes as it were numerous in aspects [perspectivement]; even so, as a result of the infinite number of simple substances, it is as if there were so many different universes, which, nevertheless are nothing but aspects [perspectives] of a single universe, according to the special point of view of each Monad. (Theod. 147.)
48.In God there is Power, which is the source of all, also Knowledge, whose content is the variety of the ideas, and finally Will, which makes changes or products according to the principle of the best. (Theod. 7, 149, 150.) These characteristics correspond to what in the created Monads forms the ground or basis, to the faculty of Perception and to the faculty of Appetition. But in God these attributes are absolutely infinite or perfect; and in the created Monads or the Entelechies (or perfectihabiae, as Hermolaus Barbarus translated the word) there are only imitations of these attributes, according to the degree of perfection of the Monad. (Theod. 87.)
49. A created thing is said to act outwardly in so far as it has perfection, and to suffer [or be passive, patir] in relation to another, in so far as it is imperfect. Thus activity [action] is attributed to a Monad, in so far as it has distinct perceptions, and passivity [passion] in so far as its perceptions are confused. (Theod. 32, 66, 386.)
50. And one created thing is more perfect than another, in this, that there is found in the more perfect that which serves to explain a priori what takes place in the less perfect, and it is on this account that the former is said to act upon the latter.
51. But in simple substances the influence of one Monad upon another is only ideal, and it can have its effect only through the mediation of God, in so far as in the ideas of God any Monad rightly claims that God, in regulating the others from the beginning of things, should have regard to it. For since one created Monad cannot have any physical influence upon the inner being of another, it is only by this means that the one can be dependent upon the other. (Theod. 9, 54, 65, 66, 201. Abrege, Object. 3.)
45.Thus God alone (or the necessary Being) has this prerogative that He must necessarily exist, if He is possible. And as nothing can interfere with the possibility of that which involves no limits, no negation and consequently no contradiction, this [His possibility] is sufficient of itself to make known the existence of God a priori. We have thus proved it, through the reality of eternal truths. But a little while ago we proved it also a posteriori, since there exist contingent beings, which can have their final or sufficient reason only in the necessary Being, which has the reason of its existence in itself.
46. We must not, however, imagine, as some do, that eternal truths, being dependent on God, are arbitrary and depend on His will, as Descartes, and afterwards M. Poiret, appear to have held. That is true only of contingent truths, of which the principle is fitness [convenance] or choice of the best, whereas necessary truths depend solely on His understanding and are its inner object. (Theod. 180-184, 185, 335, 351, 380.)
Thus God alone is the primary unity or original simple substance, of which all created or derivative Monads are products and have their birth, so to speak, through continual fulgurations of the Divinity from moment to moment, limited by the receptivity of the created being, of whose essence it is to have limits. (Theod. 382-391, 398, 395.)
41.Whence it follows that God is absolutely perfect; for perfection is nothing but amount of positive reality, in the strict sense, leaving out of account the limits or bounds in things which are limited. And where there are no bounds, that is to say in God, perfection is absolutely infinite. (Theod. Pref.22, [E. 469 a; G. vi. 27].)
由此可知,上帝是絕對完滿的;因為嚴格意義上的完滿性正是指積極實在性之全部,而將有限之物的局限和限度排除在外。在沒有局限之處,即在上帝中,完滿性是絕對無限的。(參見《神正論》序言 第22節[E. 469 a; G. vi. 27].)
42.It follows also that created beings derive their perfections from the influence of God, but that their imperfections come from their own nature, which is incapable of being without limits. For it is in this that they differ from God. An instance of this original imperfection of created beings may be seen in the natural inertia of bodies. (Theod. 20, 27-30, 153, 167, 377-378,380;Abridgmet,obj.5.)
43.It is farther true that in God there is not only the source of existences but also that of essences, in so far as they are real, that is to say, the source of what is real in the possible. For the understanding of God is the region of eternal truths or of the ideas on which they depend, and without Him there would be nothing real in the possibilities of things, and not only would there be nothing in existence, but nothing would even be possible. (Theod. 20.)
44.For if there is a reality in essences or possibilities, or rather in eternal truths, this reality must needs be founded in something existing and actual, and consequently in the existence of the necessary Being, in whom essence involves existence, or in whom to be possible is to be actual. (Theod. 184-189, 335.)
Thus the final reason of things must be in a necessary substance, in which the variety of particular changes exists only eminently, as in its source; and this substance we call God. (Theod. 7.)
39.Now as this substance is a sufficient reason of all this variety of particulars, which are also connected together throughout; there is only one God, and this God is sufficient.
40.We may also hold that this supreme substance, which is unique, universal and necessary, nothing outside of it being independent of it,—this substance, which is a pure sequence of possible being, must be illimitable and must contain as much reality as is possible.
35.In short, there are simple ideas, of which no definition can be given; there are also axioms and postulates, in a word, primary principles, which cannot be proved, and indeed have no need of proof; and these are identical propositions, whose opposite involves an express contradiction. (Theod. 36, 37, 44, 45, 49, 52, 121-122, 337, 340-344.)
36.But there must also be a sufficient reason for contingent truths or truths of fact, that is to say, for the sequence or connexion of the things which are dispersed throughout the universe of created beings, in which the analyzing into particular reasons might go on into endless detail, because of the immense variety of things in nature and the infinite division of bodies. There is an infinity of present and past forms and motions which go to make up the efficient cause of my present writing; and there is an infinity of minute tendencies and dispositions of my soul, which go to make its final cause.
37.And as all this detail again involves other prior or more detailed contingent things, each of which still needs a similar analysis to yield its reason, we are no further forward;and the sufficient or final reason must be outside of the sequence or series of particular contingent things, however infinite this series may be.
32.And that of sufficient reason, in virtue of which we hold that there can be no fact real or existing, no statement true, unless there be a sufficient reason, why it should be so and not otherwise, although these reasons usually cannot be known by us. (Theod. 44, 196.)
33.There are also two kinds of truths, those of reasoning and those of fact. Truths of reasoning are necessary and their opposite is impossible; truths of fact are contingent and their opposite is possible. When a truth is necessary, its reason can be found by analysis, resolving it into more simple ideas and truths, until we come to those which are primary. (Theod. 170, 174, 189, 280-282, 367. Abrege, Object. 3.)
解釋:萊布尼茨的理性的兩大原則矛盾律和充足理由律分別對應於兩種不同的真理,即推理的真理和事實的真理,或者必然的真理和偶然的真理。在他看來,推理的真理或必然真理指是指必然為真的同一性的陳述,即通過人的理性分析,可發現該陳述的謂詞包含語主詞之中。由此可知,與之相應的矛盾律的本質就在於a﹦a,因而萊布尼茨有時又將矛盾律稱為同一律(principle of identity)。他認為,邏輯學和數學就是建立在矛盾律或同一律的基礎上的,是相關於邏輯世界或可能世界的。
28. In so far as the concatenation of their perceptions is due to the principle of memory alone, men act like the lower animals, resembling the empirical physicians, whose methods are those of mere practice without theory. Indeed, in three-fourths of our actions we are nothing but empirics. For instance, when we expect that there will be daylight to-morrow, we do so empirically, because it has always so happened until now. It is only the astronomer who thinks it on rational grounds.
29. But it is the knowledge of necessary and eternal truths that distinguishes us from the mere animals and gives us Reason and the sciences, raising us to the knowledge of ourselves and of God. And it is this in us that is called the rational soul or mind [esprit].
30. It is also through the knowledge of necessary truths, and through their abstract expression, that we rise to acts of reflexion, which make us think of what is called I, and observe that this or that is within us;and thus, thinking of ourselves, we think of being, of substance, of the simple and the compound, of the immaterial, and of God Himself, conceiving that what is limited in us is in Him without limits. And these acts of reflexion furnish the chief objects of our reasonings. (Theod. Pref. [E. 469; G. vi. 27].)
也正是憑借必然真理的知識以及它們的抽象表達,我們才提升到具有反思活動,這使我們能夠思維所謂「自我」,並觀察到這或那處於「我們」之中;就這樣,通過思維自我,我們也就思維到存在、實體,思維到單純物和複合物,以及非實在之物和上帝自身,並設想在我們身上有限的卻會在上帝之中沒有限制。這些反思的活動為我們(當前的形而上學)①的推理提供了主要對象。(參見《神正論》前言,[E. 469; G. vi. 27])
31. Our reasonings are grounded upon two great principles, that of contradiction, in virtue of which we judge false that which involves a contradiction, and true that which is opposed or contradictory to the false; (Theod. 44, 169.)
25.We see also that nature has given heightened perceptions to animals, from the care she has taken to provide them with organs, which collect numerous rays of light, or numerous undulations of the air, in order, by uniting them, to make them have greater effect. Something similar to this takes place in smell, in taste and in touch, and perhaps in a number of other senses, which are unknown to us. And I will explain presently how that which takes place in the soul represents what happens in the bodily organs.
26. Memory provides the soul with a kind of consecutiveness, which resembles [imite] reason, but which is to be distinguished from it. Thus we see that when animals have a perception of something which strikes them and of which they have formerly had a similar perception, they are led, by means of representation in their memory, to expect what was combined with the thing in this previous perception, and they come to have feelings similar to those they had on the former occasion. For instance, when a stick is shown to dogs, they remember the pain it has caused them, and howl and run away. (Theod. Preliminary Discourse, sec. 65.)
27. And the strength of the mental image which impresses and moves them comes either from the magnitude or the number of the preceding perceptions. For often a strong impression produces all at once the same effect as a long-formed habit, or as many and oft-repeated ordinary perceptions.
21.And it does not follow that in this state the simple substance is without any perception. That, indeed, cannot be, for the reasons already given; for it cannot perish, and it cannot continue to exist without being affected in some way, and this affection is nothing but its perception. But when there is a great multitude of little perceptions, in which there is nothing distinct, one is stunned; as when one turns continuously round in the same way several times in succession, whence comes a giddiness which may make us swoon, and which keeps us from distinguishing anything. Death can for a time put animals into this condition.
22.And as every present state of a simple substance is naturally a consequence of its preceding state, in such a way that its present is big with its future; (Theod. 350.)
23.And as, on waking from stupor, we are conscious of our perceptions, we must have had perceptions immediately before we awoke, although we were not at all conscious of them; for one perception can in a natural way come only from another perception, as a motion can in a natural way come only from a motion. (Theod. 401-403.)
24.It thus appears that if we had in our perceptions nothing marked and, so to speak, striking and highly-flavoured, we should always be in a state of stupor. And this is the state in which the bare Monads are.
17.Moreover, it must be confessed that perception and that which depends upon it are inexplicable on mechanical grounds, that is to say, by means of figures and motions. And supposing there were a machine, so constructed as to think, feel, and have perception, it might be conceived as increased in size, while keeping the same proportions, so that one might go into it as into a mill. That being so, we should, on examining its interior, find only parts which work one upon another, and never anything by which to explain a perception. Thus it is in a simple substance, and not in a compound or in a machine, that perception must be sought for. Further, nothing but this (namely, perceptions and their changes) can be found in a simple substance. It is also in this alone that all the internal activities of simple substances can consist. (Theod. Pref. [E. 474; G. vi. 37].)
此外,必須承認,知覺以及依賴於知覺的東西,不能用機械的原因來解釋,也就是說,不能用形狀和運動來解釋。假設有一架機器,被制作得能夠思想、感受和擁有知覺,想像它在保持同一比例的情況下在尺寸上被放大,以至於人們可以像走進磨坊一樣進入它。在這種情況下,在考察它的內部的時候,我們只能看到一些部分作用於另一部分,而決找不到任何能夠解釋知覺的東西。因此,只能在單純實體中而非在複合物或機器中尋找知覺。況且,在單純實體中能被找到的只有這個(即知覺及其變化)。單純實體的全部內在運動也僅在於此。(參見《神正論》序言,[E. 474; G. vi. 37])
18.All simple substances or created Monads might be called Entelechies, for they have in them a certain perfection (echousi to enteles); they have a certain self-sufficiency (autarkeia) which makes them the sources of their internal activities and, so to speak, incorporeal automata. (Theod. 87.)
19.If we are to give the name of Soul to everything which has perceptions and desires [appetits] in the general sense which I have explained, then all simple substances or created Monads might be called souls; but as feeling [le sentiment] is something more than a bare perception, I think it right that the general name of Monads or Entelechies should suffice for simple substances which have perception only, and that the name of Souls should be given only to those in which perception is more distinct, and is accompanied by memory.
20.For we experience in ourselves a condition in which we remember nothing and have no distinguishable perception; as when we fall into a swoon or when we are overcome with a profound dreamless sleep. In this state the soul does not perceptibly differ from a bare Monad; but as this state is not lasting, and the soul comes out of it, the soul is something more than a bare Monad. (Theod. 64.)
14.The passing condition, which involves and represents a multiplicity in the unit [unite] or in the simple substance, is nothing but what is called Perception, which is to be distinguished from Apperception or Consciousness, as will afterwards appear. In this matter the Cartesian view is extremely defective, for it treats as non-existent those perceptions of which we are not consciously aware. This has also led them to believe that minds [esprits] alone are Monads, and that there are no souls of animals nor other Entelechies. Thus, like the crowd, they have failed to distinguish between a prolonged unconsciousness and absolute death, which has made them fall again into the Scholastic prejudice of souls entirely separate [from bodies], and has even confirmed ill-balanced minds in the opinion that souls are mortal.
15,The activity of the internal principle which produces change or passage from one perception to another may be called Appetition. It is true that desire [l'appetit] cannot always fully attain to the whole perception at which it aims, but it always obtains some of it and attains to new perceptions.
16. We have in ourselves experience of a multiplicity in simple substance, when we find that the least thought of which we are conscious involves variety in its object. Thus all those who admit that the soul is a simple substance should admit this multiplicity in the Monad; and M. Bayle ought not to have found any difficulty in this, as he has done in his Dictionary, article 『Rorarius.』
10.I assume also as admitted that every created being, and consequently the created Monad, is subject to change, and further that this change is continuous in each.
11.It follows from what has just been said, that the natural changes of the Monads come from an internal principle, since an external cause can have no influence upon their inner being. (Theod. 396, 400.)
12.But, besides the principle of the change, there must be a particular series of changes [un detail de ce qui change], which constitutes, so to speak, the specific nature and variety of the simple substances.
但是,除了變化的原則之外,還必須有一個變化的特殊系列,它構成了單純實體的特殊性和不同性。
13.This particular series of changes should involve a multiplicity in the unit [unite] or in that which is simple. For, as every natural change takes place gradually, something changes and something remains unchanged; and consequently a simple substance must be affected and related in many ways, although it has no parts.
8.Yet the Monads must have some qualities, otherwise they would not even be existing things. And if simple substances did not differ in quality, there would be absolutely no means of perceiving any change in things. For what is in the compound can come only from the simple elements it contains, and the Monads, if they had no qualities, would be indistinguishable from one another, since they do not differ in quantity. Consequently, space being a plenum, each part of space would always receive, in any motion, exactly the equivalent of what it already had, and no one state of things would be discernible from another.
9.Indeed, each Monad must be different from every other. For in nature there are never two beings which are perfectly alike and in which it is not possible to find an internal difference, or at least a difference founded upon an intrinsic quality [denomination].
6.Thus it may be said that a Monad can only come into being or come to an end all at once; that is to say, it can come into being only by creation and come to an end only by annihilation, while that which is compound comes into being or comes to an end by parts.
原譯文將「it can come into being only by creation and come to an end only by annihilation」譯作「它只能通過創造而產生,通過毀滅而消亡」。我以為似乎不妥,提出以供探討:
首先,「come into being」原譯文譯作「產生」似有不妥。學界對作為西方哲學中核心概念的「be」應怎麼對譯,已有太多爭論,或譯作「存在」,或譯作「萬有」,甚至直接譯作「是」,但不管如何,至少可知這個詞不僅僅指代發生學意義上的「產生」。若回溯至亞里士多德,「be」一詞當指「一物之為一物」的原則性理據,故而我以為將「come into being」譯作「成其所是」更為恰當。
結合《單子論》第5則:For the same reason there is no conceivable way in which a simple substance can come into being by natural means, since it cannot be formed by the combination of parts [composition].(同理,不可想像單純實體會以自然的方式而被產生,因為它不是由部分的組合而構成的。)可知,萊布尼茨此處是想說:單子不能像自然物一樣自然地產生和消亡,而只能依靠超自然的上帝的創始而產生,依靠末日毀滅而消亡。可見,萊布尼茨此處用「creation」和「annihilation」二詞,即已暗含單子只能由上帝產生和毀滅的意思,盡管文中只字未提「上帝」一詞,而原譯文「它只能通過創造而產生,通過毀滅而消亡」則全然體現不出這一點。
7.Further, there is no way of explaining how a Monad can be altered in quality or internally changed by any other created thing; since it is impossible to change the place of anything in it or to conceive in it any internal motion which could be produced, directed, increased or diminished therein, although all this is possible in the case of compounds, in which there are changes among the parts. The Monads have no windows, through which anything could come in or go out. Accidents cannot separate themselves from substances nor go about outside of them, as the
Host Studio
世界十大哲學問題如何認識
五、相對主義
相對主義曾在古希臘時期盛行,許多哲學家認為它是當代文化中的核心問題之一。當代相對主義的泛濫與各家各派攻擊客觀主義有關。
20世紀上半葉的科學哲學,從邏輯經驗主義的證實論到波普的證偽論,都認為有一些客觀的、共同的、不可否認的因素(如經驗或事實),可用作評價理論對錯的標準。
但庫恩認為,在科學革命時期,不同的科學家共同體的範式是不可通約的。這意味著,不存在相同的經驗、公認的事實,沒有永久、中立的觀察語言。他們使用相同的概念和理論語詞,但實際含義不同。各種理論的勝負消長不是由實驗來決定,而取決於各集團的論辯策略和宣傳技巧,邏輯、事實和理性在決定取捨時不起作用。
費耶阿本德在相對主義的路上走得更遠,他不但認為理論和範式是不可通約的(這已經意味著科學家們是「在不同的世界中實踐」,因此看到的是不同的東西),而且人的知覺、思想,不同的文化和傳統也是不可通約的。不存在任何公共有效的方法,唯一行得通的原理是「怎麼都行」。波普和夏皮爾反對上述相對主義,波普大力捍衛知識的客觀性,夏皮爾主張存在合理性標準。
結構主義具有相對主義傾向,因為它強調結構的自主性。這意味著,不存在結構之外的參照物決定結構的價值與意義,各結構之間不可比較,具有等值性。
德希達的解構主義也是一種極端的相對主義。他把下列觀點稱為「在場的形上學」而大加攻擊:科學和哲學可以通過日常語言反映關於實在的本質或真理;語詞或文本有確定不變的意義,真—假、觀察—理論、事實—價值、客觀—主觀等詞的意義對立是不可移易的,對文本的不同解釋,可以有理由和論據來作出判斷取捨。
伽達默爾等解釋學家認為文本沒有固定不變的意義,意義隨傳統的變遷和對讀者的效果不同而不同。藝術品不是自在的存在物,觀察者不僅以不同的方式看,而且看到了不同的東西,這顯然導向了相對主義。
相對主義抽去了認識的共同基礎和客觀標準,使人們感到一種文化和精神危機。它導致否定絕對的道德律令,其道德後果是十分嚴重的。
延續閱讀 》https://iconada.tv/photo/3-5
May 30, 2021
Host Studio
喬姆斯基
艾弗拉姆·諾姆·喬姆斯基(英語:Avram Noam Chomsky,1928年-)可說是現代最為大眾熟悉的學者之一:他出位的政治觀點(無政府工團主義)與社會評論影響了不少人,而他自己也是一個非常活躍的政治活動家。但他之所以成為這極具影響力的學者,源於他偉大的學術貢獻--他為現代語言學奠定了基礎,更被譽為現代語言學之父。
他的語言學理論不但革新了語言學本身,更對計算機科學、分析哲學、認知科學等有深遠影響。喬姆斯基語言學推翻了索緒爾結構主義語言學,也修正了流行一時的行為主義語言觀。
對大眾來說,語言學可能只是一門專門的學問。但在喬姆斯基手中,對語言的理解最終涉及對語言跟人的關係的反思,而喬姆斯基式的語言學超越了語言學的界限,踏進了哲學、科學等領域。(每日頭條 哲學園)
May 31, 2021
Host Studio
世界十大哲學問題如何認識
六、「是」與「應當」的區分
是與應當的區分,又稱事實—價值或實然—應然的區別,是道德哲學的核心問題,也是深深困擾當代倫理學的問題。
它說的是,我們不能從事實判斷推出價值判斷、道德判斷。比如從「這朵花很漂亮」推不出「我應當把它摘回家去」。又如,從「這個人學識淵博」推不出「你應該愛他」,除非加上另一個前提「應該愛學識淵博的人」,而這附加論斷本身即是價值判斷而非事實判斷。
是與應當的區分在哲學史上源遠流長,從近代的休謨開始強調,經過康德的重申,它在本世紀倫理學中成為一個嚴峻的問題,而語言分析學派對於道德語詞和道德判斷性質的分析,使更多的人承認這種區分,同時吸引不少人致力於填平二者之間的鴻溝。
摩爾在著名的《倫理學原理》一書中強調是與應當的區別,認為大量倫理問題的混亂出於對二者的不加區分。他猛烈攻擊所謂的「自然主義廖誤」(naturalistic fallacy),即用自然客體的性質來說明「善」這個基本倫理概念。
他的主張叫直覺主義,認為善就是善,它是不可定義的。邏輯經驗主義者以自己的方式凸顯了是與應當的區分,他們主張,價值判斷(例如「殺人是罪惡的」)表面是陳述句,實質上是命令句(「勿殺人!」),它不像真正的事實判斷那樣有真假對錯之分。
艾耶爾、斯蒂文森等人以「情感主義」的名目說明這種區別,在他們看來,道德判斷不是對事實的陳述,而是表達講話者的情感,即贊成或不贊成的態度,以自己的情感影響別人。
例如「偷盜是錯誤的」相當於以厭惡的口氣說:「他偷東西!」或相當於「我反對偷盜行為,你也反對吧!」赫爾把自己的有關觀點稱為指令主義,他認為道德語言是一種指令性語言。他提出了這種語言的邏輯推理原則,其中之一是:如果若干前提中一個命令句也沒有,那麼絕不能從它們之中推出命令句。
存在主義者薩特的主張和區別是與應當的觀點有異曲同工之處,他認為人在作道德決斷時,是無法從現存事實等因素中找到支持的。確實,如果「是什麼」不成其為「應當怎樣」的理由,那麼主體自主的程度加大了,個人責任也加重了。
德國思想家馬克斯·韋伯對理性和價值作出嚴格區分,也是本世紀倫理學中上述二分法普遍傳播的動力之一。
美國語言哲學家塞爾提出證明,說規範語句可以從描述語句中推出。他認為,所謂自然主義謬誤的說法,本身才是謬誤。推衍過程包括以下五個語句:
一、瓊斯說:「史密斯,我答應給你五元。」
二、瓊斯答應給史密斯五元;
三、瓊斯承擔了給史密斯五元的責任;
四、瓊斯有責任付給史密斯五元;
五、瓊斯應該付給史密斯五元。
赫爾反駁了塞爾的證明,認為這不是從是推出應當,實質上是從應當推出應當。還有一些哲學家以不同於塞爾的方法,企圖消融是與應當之間的隔膜,但沒有得到公認的成功。
不少哲學家認為,是與應當的對立是因為哲學家,把倫理問題當成了理性認識問題,例如梅洛—龐蒂和阿多爾諾認為,理性主義的兩難脫離了歷史,脫離了人們在世界上的生活。
顯而易見,這種看法出自海德格爾「在世存在」的思想。而普特南從事實與合理性相互依賴這一點出發,證明存在價值事實,每一事實都滲透了價值,而每一價值也負載著某一事實。(来源:今日頭條)
Jun 1, 2021
Host Studio
世界十大哲學問題如何認識
十、融匯的可能和途徑
當代哲學流派繁多,風格各異,使人困惑、不滿,也使人產生期望。人們不願在各持己見的學說面前莫衷一是,希望在當代文化和精神危機中,在哲學裡找到一種統一和指導力量。人們尤其盼望在重邏輯和科學的英美傳統和重人文歷史的歐洲大陸傳統之間看到匯通融合的希望,目前正有一些哲學家從事這方面工作。
利科的哲學以解釋學為主,繼承和發揮了現象學和精神分析的重要思想。他特別重視研究和借鑑分析哲學的成果,尤其是奧斯汀、斯特勞森和塞爾的言語行為理論。他說,任何人想要使自己的研究跟上時代潮流,都必須把歐陸的話語和語言理論與英美的哲學語義學結合。
哈貝馬斯繼承了馬克思學說中社會批判和社會改造的思想,同時注意借鑑現象學、存在主義和解釋學的觀點。他特別在研究和借鑑語言分析哲學方面下功夫,發展出一套普遍語義學和社會交往理論。他對當代西方工業社會的批判是以反對扭曲的偽交往為基礎的,他利用奧斯汀關於以言行事行為的觀點,將其轉化為強調人際關係的語言交流學說。
另一位德國哲學家阿佩爾也對兩種傳統都有深入研究,並竭力促成對話、交流與綜合。早在六十年代,他就在《語言分析的哲學和人文科學》一書中調和分析哲學和解釋學,主張應該超越這兩種哲學。後來,他又大力挖掘維根斯坦在《哲學研究》中關於意義、理解、語言遊戲的思想,尤其是關於「生活形式」的觀點,認為它們與解釋學的主張,特別是與狄爾泰的主張是相通的,可以構成一些統一認識的基礎。
在企圖化解英美與歐陸傳統對立,爭取思想統一的哲學家中,羅蒂是工作最力者。他把後期維根斯坦當作分析哲學的代表,認為維氏的觀點可以和海德格爾、福柯、德希達、伽達默爾的思想貫通,達到一種偉大的綜合。他認為,最後融匯貫通的產物不再是傳統意義的哲學,而是一種完全新型的東西,他將其稱為後哲學文化。
他認為,西方哲學的主流,從柏拉圖以來,經笛卡爾和康德,一直到本世紀英美分析哲學,都是認識論中心主義,把哲學視為自然的鏡子,把哲學的任務視為為人類知識打基礎,這種認識主義已經開始破產,詩歌和其他文學形式將取代哲學的地位。
西方有位哲學家曾說,西方哲學兩三千年的發展,不過是為柏拉圖的思想加了一些腳註。綜觀以上十大問題,我們不但可以見到傳承,亦能見到創新,甚至可以說本世紀哲學與傳統西方哲學有某種斷裂。看到這一點,不把西方古今哲學視為一體,對於我們的研究和借鑑是十分有益的。
Jun 10, 2021
Host Studio
柏格森·把器官變異傳給其後代
(編註:關注創意在文化進化論中的意涵)
柏格森選用拉馬克的變異理論,來揭示達爾文進化論的不完備,“眾所周知, 拉馬克認為: 生物有能力通過使用或放棄使用其器官而發生變化, 有能力將如此獲得的變異傳給其後代。當今, 相當一部分生物學家持有此類學說。⋯⋯產生新物種的變異也可能暗示出了意識和意志, 而這正為這個學說的最傑出代表———美國自然學家寇普所理解。所以說, 在進化論的所有後來形式當中, 唯有新拉馬克主義能夠承認進化的內部心理原理, 盡管它並不總是如此。” (柏格森,2000 :67) (見(胡學星,2005,柏格森與曼德爾施塔姆詩學,《山東外語教學》,2005 年第3 期,總第106期)
May 31, 2024
Host Studio
[1] 該例子的原文可參考:“this is because the racehorse and the plow horse do not have the same affect nor the same capacity for being affected; the plow horse has affects in common rather with the ox”(Spinoza: Practical Philosophy 124). 而他在《千重台》也有類似的說法:“a race-horse is more different from a workhorse than a workhorse is from an ox” ( 257)。
[2] 任何關於《斯賓諾莎的實踐哲學》的中譯,筆者參考馮炳昆之譯文,然而會依行文的脈絡而有些調整。
[3] 關於情感素的討論,主要在於《千重台》中的頁256-260。
[4] 在其《電影1》中,德勒茲指出,力量(power / puissance)是 « expression of a power which passes from one quality to another »。而質性(quality)是 « expression of a quality common to several different things. » (91 ; [法文版]130)
[5] 為求行文方便,筆者暫將以下的專有名詞譯為如下:「percept=感知物」;「perception=感知」;「affect=情感素」;「affection=情感」;「sensation=感覺」前者通常是指一種情感較細微的元素,而後者(+tion)的詞語通常是指該情感已變成一種較為穩固,並且主體性的情感狀態(state of emotions)。
[6] 參考 « it is the percept or affect of the material itself, the smile of oil, the gesture of fired clay, the thrust of metal, the crouch of Romanesque stone, and the ascent of Gothic stone » (166 ;法文156)
[7] 參考 « the aim of art is to wrest the percept from perceptions of objects and the states of a perceiving subject, to wrest the affect from affections as the transition from one state to another : to extract a bloc of sensations, a pure being of sensations » (167 ; 法文158)
(Stephen Shih-hong Chuang July, 2010;見:英文文學與文化資料庫)
Sep 12, 2024
Host Studio
弦學 無器官音樂 感情地理學 文创要素
Bibliography
Buchanan, Brett. Onto-ethologies: The Animal Environments of Uexküll, Heidegger, Merleau-Ponty, and Deleuze. Albany: SUNY P, 2008.
Crawford, Lucas. “Transgender without Organs? Mobilizing a Geo-Affective Theory of Gender Modification.” WSQ: Woman''s Studies Quarterly 36: 3&4 (Fall/Winter), 2008. 127-143.
Deleuze, Gilles. Cinema 1: The Movement-Image. Trans. Hugh Tomlinson and Robert Galeta. Minneapolis: U of Minnesota P, 1986.
---. Expressionism in Philosophy: Spinoza. Trans. Martin Joughin. New York: Zone Books, 1990.
---. Spinoza: Practical Philosophy. Trans. Robert Hurley. San Francisco: City Lights, 1988.
---. 《斯賓諾莎的實踐哲學》馮炳昆 譯•北京:商務印書館,2005•
---. and Félix Guattari. A Thousand Plateaus: Capitalism and Schizophrenia. Trans. Brian Massumi. Minneapolis: U of Minnesota P, 1987.
---. and Claire Parnet. Dialogues. Trans. Hugh Tomlinson and Barbara Habberjam. New York: Columbia UP, 1987.
Delourme, Chantal and Jean-Jacques Lecercle. “Affect.” Le vocabulaire de Gilles Deleuze. Eds. Robert Sasso and Arnaud Villani. Nice: Centre de recherches d''histoire des idées, 2003. 23-33.
Lèbre, Jérome. Hegel à l''epreuve de la philosophie contemporaine. Deleuze, Lyotard, Derrida. Paris : Ellipses, 2002.
Lefebvre, Alexander. The Image of Law: Deleuze, Bergson, Spinoza. Stanford: Stanford UP, 2008.
Lorraine, Tamsin. Irigaray and Deleuze: Experiments in Visceral Philosophy. Ithaca: Cornell UP, 1999.
Massumi, Brian. Parables for the Virtual: Movement, Affect, Sensation. Durham: Duke UP, 2002.
Manning, Erin. Politics of Touch: Sense, Movement, Sovereignty. Minneapolis: U of Minnesota P, 2007.
Moraru, Christian. “Touching: Proximity, Remove, and the Measure of Things.” Symplokē 14.1-2 (2006): 306-10.
Patton, Paul. Deleuze and the Political. London: Routledge, 2000.
Thrift, Nigel. “Intensities of Feeling: Towards a Spatial Politics of Affect.” Geografiska Annaler 86 B.11(2004): 57-78.
Sep 12, 2024
Host Studio
在《電影1》中,德勒茲說,「情感素是一種實質,也就是力量或質性[4]。它就是被表達的東西(exprimé ; expressed)」(97)。當情感素作用於一個臉部,或是臉部的特寫,其臉部的特寫不是對某一個部分的物化。臉部的特寫可以使其影像(image)脫離出其時空座標,如此一來,便能召喚出被表達的純粹情感素。(96) Ronald Bogue更進一步地說:
The close-up is the face in that the close-up facializes, or converts a concrete entity into a decontextualized immobile surface with motor tendencies that expresses an affective quality/power. (Bogue 79; emphasis original)
在德勒茲與瓜達西合著的《何謂哲學 ?》中,他們在該第七章<感知物,情感素與概念>[5]中,對情感素也有精確的說法,主要以文學及繪畫的文本來開始該思想。他們認為,藝術並非是概念、感知物 (perception) 或情感 (affection) 的事物,而是關於感知物,情感素的事。他們是非主體 (non subjectifs) 的、非人類的,並且不會屈從於時間之中。對德-瓜而言,美學並不是與感知 (avec perception) 一塊的觀看,而是與感覺(avec sensation)的關看。該感覺是特異的(singular),雜糅著感知物與情感素。感覺存在於藝術作品的材料之中[6]。藝術作品的角色在於萃取 (extraire) 感知與情感的感覺聚塊 (un bloc de sensation aux perception et affections),並且提取出其感知物與情感素(arracher des percepts et des affects)[7]。情感素也可以被理解為「流變人類的非人類」(un devenir non-humain de l''homme / man''s nonhuman becoming),所以藝術家是情感素的創造者,陌生(inconnu)情感素的締造者(例如在《白鯨記》中,Achab 船長的流變成鯨魚;在《呼嘯山莊》中,連結Heathcliff與Catherine的狂暴的情感素) (編譯自Delourme & Lecercle 31) 。
總結與展望
總括而言,情感素係為一身體與其他身體能產生關係與連結的能力;它就是一個連結點,界於中間,並且不會淪為主體或一種同質的統一體。Crawford在其文章<無器官的跨性別乎?>中,即用情感素來討論跨性別的解套方式,並搗毀在二元男/女定義下的身份認同與自我:“affect is the body''s capacity to undermine our best attempts at deciding on identities and selves” (Crawford 133; emphasis original)。若按史-德的思想脈絡而言,我們應該去質疑舊有本質化對一生命體的定義與命名,並且強調一個身體與其他身體所能產生的生活樣式或關係。
再者,關於德勒茲思想對情感素的價值,Delourme與Lecercle兩人的觀點詳述如下。首先,情感素是一種肯定的力量 (puissance d''affirmation)。對德氏而言,肯定的力量乃是反對精神分析的命題,或某些像里歐塔或阿岡本的看法,他認為情感素與創傷並無直接的關係,也跟失去的原始經驗毫無瓜葛。德氏認為,情感素就如同生命的力量(「用歡愉來感染,並且倍增實驗或包裹最大值肯定力量的情感素」, 德勒茲在其Dialogues 頁76如此寫道)。這個概念加入了史賓諾莎的肯定性,同時,也加入了生存力量 (puissance d''être) 的肯定性。情感素不該被設想成一種品質、述語(prédicat),而是一種包裹所有生活模式(tous les modes du vivant)的力量與關係。
情感素是關於非人稱的事實(fait)。德勒茲也因此指出,那是衝動(pulsion; drive)情感素的概念。情感素是非人稱生命的力量,比個體還要優越,並且視流變為人類的非人性。
情感素最後終將離不開德勒茲思想的概念,並且了解內在性。情感素並不會淪入為主體性中,而應該被設想成內蘊於它必須建立的平面過程:這個平面既不是形式的結構化,也不是自然化或自發性的,而是一個不穩定的中間/空間(milieu)位置,總是受情感素-熱情與情感素-作用的影響,並且由動力學(cinétiques)原則(快與慢)與動態學(dynamiques)原則(強度,力量的強度 [intensités, degrès de puissance])所重新形構的。(編譯自Delourme & Lecercle 32-33)
就Delourme與Lecercle兩人而言,德氏所謂的情感素對於生命是持肯定的態度,而非是匱乏的。情感素不會結構化成為一種主體或型式;它永遠總是在快與慢之間,強度與力量強度之間,如此便能與任何異質的身體結合,以產生創新,甚至革命的可能。
Sep 12, 2024
Host Studio
「動與靜,快與慢之間的關係。」[2] 並且,德勒茲說:
The important thing is to understand life, each living individuality, not as a form, or a development of form, but as a complex relation between differential velocities, between deceleration and acceleration of particles. A composition of speeds and slownesses on a plane of immanence” (Spinoza 123)
如此一來,個體的身體或生命,不再是生命由某種形式所定義 (如,人當何以為人?) 而是將身體或生命視為是一具身體與另一具身體的複雜關係。而筆者想說明的是,德勒茲所謂的身體 (body; corps) 不只限制於人的身體,而是「動物的身體」「大地的身體」「大自然的身體」…等。所以,當牛的身體與大地的身體產生關係,其身體的感覺能力 (affective capacity) 是時快時慢、如輕如重…等感覺關係下的作用 (acted)。
其二,德氏所提出的另一個命題是「影響及受影響的能力」(the capacity for affecting and being affected),而其能力同時關乎到身體與心靈 (124)。史-德認為,我們能不用一種實體 (substance) 或主體 (subject) 來看一個人、一隻動物,而是用樣態 (mode) 的方式。那麼,所有的事情都會有所改觀。而德氏所謂的「樣態」指的是「快與慢的復雜關係,[. . .]並且,它是身體或思想的一種施加影響並遭受影響的能力」(【英譯】124;【中譯】150)。德勒茲舉德國的動物學家馮•于克斯屈爾 (J. von Unexküll) 所著的《動物的世界與人類的世界》中,Unexküll則以三種所謂「動物生態學」(ethology) 方式來觀察研究蜱吮吸哺乳動物血液的例子:1)用光線的感覺 (light) ;2)嗅覺的感覺 (olfactive) ; 3)熱敏的感覺 (thermal)。如此一來,Unexküll的作法方式方能從傳統用種類屬性來定義或分類中逃逸;其所強調的是一具充滿活力的身體,與其他異質的身體產生交互影響的關係。
在《千重台》中[3],德勒茲與瓜達西(以下簡稱「德-瓜」)認為情感素是身體(主動的)能力去作用於其他事物,並且也有(被動的)能力遭受作用與影響。他們說:
We know nothing about a body until we know what it can do, in other words, what its affects are, how they can or cannot enter into composition with other affects, with the affects of another body, either to destroy that body or to be destroyed by it, either to exchange actions and passions with it or to join with it in composing a more powerful body. (ATP 257)
同時,《千重台》的英譯者,同時也是歐陸思想專家Brian Massumi即表示:
“He [Spinoza] was referring to a body''s capacity to enter into relations of movement and rest. This capacity he spoke of as a power (or potential) to affect or be affected. The issue, after sensation, perception, and memory, is affect. ‘Relation between movement and rest'' is another way of saying ‘transition''” (Massumi 15).
在此引言中,Massumi概括地提及情感素的特性:情感素是一種身體的能力(capacity or power/potential),並能進入兩者之間的關係。它孕有引發、影響其他身體的力量 (puissance d''agir),當然,在此同時,它也受到其他身體的影響。情感素是界於兩個身體關係之間的中間點 (transition),所以情感素也是一種流變(ATP 256; Bonta & Protevi 50)。
Sep 13, 2024
Host Studio
莊士弘·Affect 情感素;情動;動情 afffect
「情感素」這個詞乃是從史賓諾莎(Spinoza)的思想所開展出的論述。在史賓諾莎–德勒茲(以下簡稱「史-德」)的思想裡,「情感素」係為生命的、非人稱的力量 (puissance de vie non personnelle),往往超越世俗舊有定義下的生命個體(Delourme & Lecercle 32)。在此舊有定義下的生命個體,其狀態是靜止不動的。
反之,「情感素」強調個體生命與其他的生命體所產生的關係 (relations)、連結(connection, encounter),強調其個體的殊異性 (singularity),並切斷原有社會或任何知識建構的追捕或連結。
德勒茲援引斯賓諾莎關於犁田的馬與賽馬的例子,其例子說明:一頭犁田的馬與另一頭犁田的牛,儘管馬與牛是全然不同種類的動物,然論其兩者的「情感素」關係,是較接近的。然而,一頭犁田的馬,儘管與另一頭賽馬在生物學定義下是同一種類的,但它們兩個在身體功用的情感素關係上,卻是莫不相干的個體。[1]由此可知,由史-德看來,若我們要去說明一頭犁田的馬,應該去除生物學定義下的界、門、綱、目、科、屬、種,應該強調該a)馬的身體的能力與b)該馬的身體與其他身體的關係作用。
在德勒茲思想早期的著作《斯賓諾莎的實踐哲學》中,他在其<史賓諾莎與我們>提出兩種對身體的討論。首先,他以動力學 (kinetic; cinétique) 的命題說明:身體的定義並不是由其形式 (form) 或功能 (function) 所定義,而是由其身體與其他身體所產生的關係──「動與靜,快與慢之間的關係。」(下續)
Sep 13, 2024
Host Studio
爱垦網:亲亲,珍一个
将“亲珍”文创项目赋予“亲昵”和“情深”作文学诠释,借助了“如数家珍”表达深入挖掘文化遗产与个人、社区之间的“生活世界”(情感纽带、場域),让活动充满温情与共鸣感。文学叙事、诗意语言和代际情感的表达,“亲珍”文创项目可以赋予文化遗产以深厚的亲昵感与情感转折,突出它是历史遗存,与充满生命力的情感载体。文学诠释不仅强化文化遗产的情感共鸣,还通过集体的叙事和互动体验,让社区成员在共享珍贵文化时,感受到彼此的情感联结。
“如数家珍”的深情书写
文化遗产的个体化叙述:活动鼓励社区成员藉讲述他们与某一文化遗产或传统的个人故事来展示“亲珍”的情感。通过这样的文学化书写,可以表达他们对这些“珍贵”物件或记忆的深厚感情,如同他们在“如数家珍”时展现的那种亲密与熟悉感。每个故事都承载着丰富情感,传达了代代相传的珍贵记忆和亲密关系。
家族记忆与文化的融合:社区许多文化遗产通常与家庭记忆密不可分。因此,“亲珍”文创项目通过文学性描述家族记忆,将个体的亲情与文化遗产深度结合。如某位长者谈论祖上传承的某种手工艺品时,可以通过细腻的文字或口述历史,讲述每代人在守护这一遗产时的情感投入,展现“珍”的深意,反映文化遗产在情感上的深远影响。
文学化的叙事转化:从“珍”到“亲”的情感过渡
用诗意语言表达文化的亲昵:文创活动注入文学形式,表现文化遗产与个体之间的“亲昵”。用富有情感的语言描述人与遗产之间的深情。例如,用细腻的文字描绘祖母编织的古老手工艺品、某片老林中的树木、或者一首代代相传的民谣。通过这样的文学诠释,文化遗产不再是冰冷的物件,而是充满了与人情交织的温暖。
文化遗产作为“亲密物件”:在文学诠释中,将“珍”物转化为“亲密物件”,即这些文化遗产或传统不只是历史遗存,而是生活中与个体亲密互动的部分。通过赋予它们生命与个性,比如一件器物被比作家中的一位“老朋友”或“家庭成员”,使其与主人亲密互动,承载情感与回忆。这种赋予物件情感的方式,可以通过文学叙述加以表现,强化物我间的亲昵感。
“亲珍”中的代际传承:情感的深沉与延续
代际叙事的文学表达:文化传承过程中,不同世代间的情感纽带藉文学叙事来体现。通过讲述祖辈如何珍爱这些遗产,父辈如何继承,自己如何与文化遗产发生亲密联系,展现这一“亲珍”的深沉情感。在文学诠释中,这种传承的过程可以带有浓郁的情感色彩,反映出家族、社区在守护这些珍贵文化时的内心波动和情感共鸣。
文化遗产的情感沉淀与变化:世代叙事也表现了文化在不同年代中的情感转化。如一件祖传的手工艺品,可能在祖辈那里象征维持生计,而在孙辈那里象征着某种文化认同与自豪感。这种情感的转折与变化可以通过文学性的表达展现出来,传递出深层的情感递进,既有代代相传的深情,又体现了随着时代变迁,文化遗产在当代的新意义。
情感氛围的文学营造
通过文学叙述营造怀旧氛围:活动可以通过诗歌、散文、故事等形式营造一种怀旧和深情的氛围,使得参与者不仅是在了解文化遗产,更是进入到一种充满温情和怀旧的情感空间。例如,通过细腻的文字描绘一个古老村庄的晨雾,或一件老物件被缓缓抚摸的场景,让参与者感受到文化遗产的温暖与生命力。
结合意象与情感的文学表达:可以通过意象化的表达来增强“亲珍”的情感深度。文学中常用的意象如“流水”、“古树”、“篝火”等,都可以为文化遗产与人之间的情感联系提供文学表达的背景。比如,描述某件珍贵的古物时,可以将其比作“古老的流水在时光中缓缓流淌”,这种意象性的表达使物件充满了时间的积淀与情感的重量。
互动性的文学体验:从文字到实践
文学化的互动体验:藉文学语言设计的文创互动,感受到“亲珍”中的情感深度。比如,设计一个环节,让参与者根据文化遗产的特点写一段描述其珍贵意义的文字,通过这样的文学化练习,深刻感受到文化与情感的联系。
叙事性参与与情感认同:社区在文学活动中分享自己与文化遗产的情感故事,形成集体叙事。文字分享展现了个人的情感,也构建一种社区情感的集体认同。文学诠释和互动性结合,让文化遗产在参与者心中成为充满温情的“亲珍”之物。
Sep 16, 2024
Host Studio
爱垦網·高阶创造力挑战机械人系列:情动叙事
研究叙事的感性(情动)意义涉及到多个学术领域,包括文学、文化研究、心理学、认知科学等领域。近年来,以下五个课题受到较多关注,并有一些新发现:
情感转向与叙事的情感作用:随着“情感 / 情动转向”(Affective Turn)的发展,学者们越来越重视叙事中情感的传递与共鸣。研究发现,叙事既是信息传递的工具,也是情感体验的媒介,影响了受众的感知和认知,尤其是如何通过情感叙事触发人们的同理心和情感认同。
叙事疗法与自我认同构建:叙事疗法的研究显示,通过个人叙述自己的故事,个体能够重新组织自我认知与身份。学者们发现,叙事不仅可以治愈心理创伤,还能在创造意义、塑造个体自我认同方面发挥作用,特别是如何通过重塑叙事帮助人们克服生活中的困境。
地方感性与叙事地理学:段义孚的“地方感性”理论对叙事的空间感知影响研究有很大贡献。叙事地理学研究发现,叙事不仅反映了故事的时间进程,还与空间体验紧密相连,塑造了人们对地方的情感归属和文化认同,尤其在地方文创和旅游叙事中,这一研究有了较大的突破。
叙事与集体记忆的共创:在社会学和文化研究中,集体记忆和叙事的关系成为研究热点。通过集体叙事,群体能够共同创造并传递他们的历史记忆和文化经验。学者们研究了叙事如何在不同文化背景下,帮助群体维持和重塑其共同记忆,尤其在数字化时代,叙事共创的形式不断演变。
认知叙事学与情感认知的关系:认知叙事学(Cognitive Narratology)研究表明,叙事不仅影响情感体验,还与认知过程高度关联。通过叙事,人们能够理解复杂的情感和心理状态。近年来的研究表明,叙事的结构和内容可以影响个体的情感理解,特别是在文学作品和影视作品中的人物情感刻画对观众或读者情感反应的影响。
这些课题都揭示了叙事不仅仅是传递信息的方式,更是一种复杂的感性体验工具,通过情感、空间、记忆和认知的交织来塑造个体和集体的经验。
Sep 18, 2024
Host Studio
通过结合克氏的理论,段義孚的“地方感性”可以被塑造成一种更加复杂且深刻的情感体验。这种体验不仅包含对地方的认同,还涉及对地方符号、文化和语言的情感化理解,使地方感成为一种动态的、持续发展的身份与记忆的交汇。
如果將克里斯蒂瓦的理論與段義孚的“地方感性”結合,可以創造一種更深層次的情感與文化交織的理解方式,特別是在分析“地方感性”、“情动转折”如何形塑個人和集體身份時。
克里斯蒂瓦的“異鄉人”概念與“地方感性”
異鄉人(Stranger): Kristeva 探討了“異鄉人”這一身份,這種身份不屬於任何固定的地方或文化,而是處於邊緣地帶。這種邊緣身份可以用來強化段義孚所描述的“地方感性”的複雜性和多樣性。地方感性不僅僅是對一個地方的歸屬感,也可能包含對異地文化的情感牽引和自我認同的漂泊感。
“互文性”與地方敘述
互文性(Intertextuality): Kristeva的語際性理論強調文本之間的互動和參照,可以應用於“地方感性”的建構。段義孚的“地方感性”可以視作一種語際性敘述,即不同地方的記憶、歷史和文化相互交織,共同形塑了對某一地方的感性認知。這種語際性可以加強對地方的情感共鳴,使得地方不僅僅是地理位置,而是文化記憶和符號的交匯點。
“詩性語言”與地方的情感訴求
克里斯蒂瓦強調語言的詩性功能和其在情感表達中的重要性。當這一點與段義孚的“地方感性”結合時,可以通過具有詩意和情感深度的語言來表達對地方的獨特情感。這種語言不僅傳達信息,還能喚起地方記憶,讓讀者或聽眾感受到一種深刻的情感聯繫。
“地方感性”的邊界與崩解
克氏探討了身份的邊界和解構,這可以與段義孚的“地方感性”概念結合,探索地方感性的流動性和不穩定性。這種不穩定性反映了現代全球化下地方感的變遷和重構,強調了地方感性在不同文化語境中的變化與重塑。
將克里斯蒂瓦的理論與段義孚的“地方感性”結合,可以在情感、文化和語言層面上創造出一種更為複雜的“地方感性”,這種感性不僅依賴於地理和歷史,還包括了文化記憶、情感體驗以及個體身份的流動性。
相关:呼唤型造物 evocative object The Etymology of Vocative Linguistic Theory on Vocative Conation & Affects Vivo's aesthetics Vocative & Evocative 当符号呼唤象征
Sep 24, 2024
Host Studio
爱垦APP: 克里斯蒂瓦与段義孚的“地方感性”
将克里斯蒂瓦(Julia Kristeva)的理论与段義孚的“地方感性”结合,可藉以下方式来深化对地方的情感联系和认同感:
符号与语义的异质性:
克里斯蒂瓦强调语言中的异质性与多重意义,特别是通过符号(semiotics)与语义(signification)之间的张力。这种张力可以用于描述地方感性,通过地方语言、方言、历史叙事和地方文化符号,来表现地方的多样性和复杂性。
段義孚的地方感性在克氏理论框架下,可看作是这些符号和语义如何通过地方经验和记忆被个人内化和再现的过程。地方感因此不仅是一种物理地理位置的概念,还包含了深层次的文化和情感意义。
主体间性与地方认同
克氏讨论了主体间性(intertextuality)和主体身份的流动性,这可以应用于地方感性的构建。地方不仅仅是一个固定的空间,也是文化和个人经历相互交织的场所。在这种背景下,地方感性是通过多重文本和经验,逐渐形成的一种认
同。
这种认同感在克氏理论中,通过探讨个人如何在不同的文化符号和记忆之间游移,从而形成对地方的情感依附来理解。换句话说,地方感性是一个动态的过程,反映了个体与地方之间持续互动和重新诠释的关系。
“语言的他者”与地方的陌生化:
克里斯蒂瓦的“语言的他者(the Other in language)”概念,可以用于分析地方感性中的陌生化体验。通过将地方看作是他者,通过符号和文化的陌生化,个体可以在重新发现地方的过程中,感受到深层次的情感连接。这种陌生化不仅让人们重新认识地方的独特性,还激发了新的情感和认同,这与段義孚所提到的地方感性相一致,即通过陌生和熟悉的对比,深化对地方的情感体验。
情感语言与地方的象征性
克氏强调语言不仅是交流的工具,还是情感的载体。地方感性在这种理论框架下,可以通过情感语言和象征性表达来加强。例如,通过故事、诗歌、音乐、传说等情感充沛的形式,将地方经验转化为集体记忆和个人认同的一部分。
Sep 24, 2024
Host Studio
克里斯蒂瓦和維柯
維柯的“詩性思維”(sapienza poetica)與朱莉亞·克里斯蒂瓦(Julia Kristeva)的“符號態”(the semiotic)雖然來自不同的理論背景和時代,但兩者在探討人類思維、語言和文化的原初形式方面有一定的相似性。這些相似性可以通過以下幾個方面來理解:
原始經驗的表達方式
詩性思維:維柯的“詩性思維”指的是早期人類通過詩歌、神話和隱喻來理解和解釋世界的方式。在維柯看來,這種思維是人類最初的智慧形式,先於理性思維,並且通過具象和情感化的方式來表達對世界的理解。
符號態:克里斯蒂瓦的“符號態”是指在語言形成之前或與語言並行的、以情感、節奏、聲音和非理性元素為特徵的表達方式。這種態勢與拉康(Lacan)所描述的“鏡像階段”或“想像界”有關,是語言符號(the symbolic)系統形成之前的混沌狀態。
語言的起源與功能
語言的詩意起源:維柯認為語言起源於詩意的隱喻和象徵,這些語言符號最初是通過對自然現象的擬人化和神話化來創造的。這些符號不僅是交流的工具,更是表達和塑造人類經驗的手段。
符號態中的語言:在克里斯蒂瓦的理論中,符號態是語言形成的潛在動力。語言中的符號態元素,比如詩歌中的韻律、聲音和重複,體現了人類思維的情感和非理性層面。符號態與語言的符號系統相互作用,使語言不僅僅是一種理性交流的工具,而是包含了無意識和情感的表達。
文化與個體發展的過程
文化演進:維柯認為人類文化經歷了從神話和詩意思維向理性思維的轉變,但這種轉變並不是完全的消除,而是反映了文化發展的循環。詩性智慧在文化的不同階段仍然發揮著作用,特別是在藝術和宗教中。
心理發展:克里斯蒂瓦將符號態看作是個體心理發展的一個階段,尤其是在嬰兒早期的無意識狀態。隨著個體進入語言的符號系統,符號態並不消失,而是持續存在於藝術、詩歌和情感表達中。
詩性智慧與符號態在藝術中的表現
藝術作為詩性智慧的延續:維柯認為藝術和神話都是詩性智慧的延續,它們以象徵和隱喻的形式表達人類對世界的理解。這些藝術形式具有深刻的文化意義,是人類集體經驗的反映。
符號態在藝術中的作用:克里斯蒂瓦強調,符號態在藝術中特別重要,因為它能夠打破語言的理性結構,釋放出無意識的力量和情感。藝術中的符號態表現為超越語言符號系統的元素,如聲音、節奏和視覺象徵,這些都直接影響觀者或讀者的情感和心理反應。
維柯的“詩性思維”和克里斯蒂瓦的“符號態”雖然處於不同的理論框架下,但它們都強調了人類思維和表達形式中的非理性、情感化和象徵性的層面。兩者都認為,這些原初的思維方式不僅是人類文化的基礎,而且在現代藝術和詩歌中繼續發揮著重要作用。通過比較,這些概念可以幫助我們更全面地理解人類思維的複雜性以及語言和藝術的多重功能。这一切,都有助于我们开发新文创。
Sep 25, 2024
Host Studio
爱垦APP: 维柯·尼采·佛洛伊德·克里斯蒂瓦
維柯對尼采(Friedrich Nietzsche)和佛洛伊德(Sigmund Freud)的思想沒有直接的影響,但他的思想確實預示了一些他們後來發展的核心觀念,因此可以說在某些方面存在間接的影響或思想上的相似性。
尼采與維柯
詩性智慧與尼采的「權力意志」:維柯強調人類早期通過神話和隱喻來理解世界,而尼采也認為人類通過藝術和象徵來賦予生活意義。尼采的「權力意志」概念表現出一種類似於維柯詩性智慧的思想,即創造力和意志在構建世界觀中的核心作用。
文化與歷史循環觀:維柯提出了文明發展的循環觀,認為歷史是反復的,而非直線的。尼采在其《悲劇的誕生》中也探討了文化的循環,特別是藝術的衰落與再生。雖然尼采可能沒有直接受到維柯的影響,但兩者的思想在處理歷史和文化發展的非線性特質時存在相似之處。
佛洛伊德與維柯
隱喻與無意識:維柯強調早期人類通過隱喻來理解世界,這與佛洛伊德對無意識的研究有一定的相似性。佛洛伊德認為,隱喻和象徵是無意識思想的一部分,並通過夢境等方式表達出來。雖然佛洛伊德沒有直接引用維柯,但他們都關注隱喻在構建人類心理和文化中的作用。
神話與心理分析:維柯將神話視為早期人類理解世界的工具,這些神話反映了集體智慧。佛洛伊德則將神話與心理分析聯繫起來,認為神話故事往往反映了集體無意識或心理衝突的表現,例如他對奧狄浦斯情結的分析。這種對神話的解讀方式與維柯的思想在方法論上有一定的共鳴。
雖然維柯對尼采和佛洛伊德的影響不是直接的,但他們三人在思想上存在一些共通點。維柯對神話、隱喻和文化發展的理解預示了,尼采和佛洛伊德在後來的哲學和心理學研究中的一些重要概念。因此,雖然沒有明確的證據表明尼采和佛洛伊德直接受到維柯的影響,但他們在處理人類文化、思想和無意識領域的時候,展示了某些思想的共鳴。
Sep 25, 2024
Host Studio
愛墾APP: 流散羣體的“身體”
在德勒茲的哲學框架下,「流散族群」(diaspora community)可以被看作是一種符合他對「身體」(無器官身體)的廣義理解,但並不完全等同。我們可以通過幾個關鍵點來探討流散族群如何符合德勒茲的「身體」概念,特別是「生成」和「去疆域化」概念的延伸。
去疆域化與流散族群
德勒茲與瓜塔里提出的「去疆域化」(deterritorialization)是指打破現有的疆域、秩序和分類,進入一種開放的、流動的狀態。流散族群本質上是一個處於去疆域化過程中的群體,他們離開了原有的地理、文化、社會疆域,分散到全球各地。這種不斷跨越國界、文化和社會的狀態,可以看作是一種去疆域化的體現。流散族群的身份、文化、語言、習俗在新的環境中被重新解構和重新組合,這種動態變化正符合德勒茲「無器官身體」的去中心化、多重生成的特性。
多重性與生成(Multiplicity and Becoming)
流散族群的存在是一種不斷變化和生成的狀態。作為一個跨越國界、文化、語言和歷史的群體,他們不是一個單一的、固定的實體,而是不斷在新的社會文化環境中重新定義和再生。這與德勒茲的多重性(multiplicity)概念相契合。德勒茲認為,事物不是單一的,而是由無數潛在可能性和關系構成的,流散族群的文化和身份正是處於這種多重性之中,不斷生成新的身份認同、文化實踐和社會關係。
身體作為力量流動的場域(Body as a Field of Forces and Affects)
在德勒茲的「無器官身體」概念中,身體被視為一個力量、欲望和情感流動的場域,而非一個固定的生物學實體。流散族群也可以看作是這種流動的文化與情感場域。他們的存在與歷史往往受到移民、流離失所、文化交流與沖突的影響,成為各種力量和欲望的交匯點。在新的文化環境中,流散族群的文化傳統、語言、宗教和社會結構與新的社會力量發生交織,形成一種新的流動性和互動性。
再疆域化與文化再生
流散族群不僅僅是去疆域化的體現,他們還參與了再疆域化(reterritorialization)的過程。在新的國度和文化環境中,他們會創造新的社會和文化疆域,重塑身份與歸屬感。這種文化的再生和重構,符合德勒茲的「生成」概念:流散族群並不是簡單的原地再現自己的傳統文化,而是根據新的環境、社會關系和力量進行文化的重組和再創造。
非中心化與網絡結構
流散族群往往具有一種非中心化的、全球分佈的網絡結構。流散族群的成員可能遍布世界各地,但通過親緣、文化、語言和社群紐帶保持聯系。這種分布式網絡與德勒茲的「游牧學」(nomadology)和「根莖結構」(rhizome)相呼應:去中心化、多點聯接、無固定邊界的特性使得流散族群成為一個動態、多樣的生成體。
流散族群可以在德勒茲定義的「身體」框架下進行類比,但並非直接等同。 流散族群通過去疆域化、多重性、生成和再疆域化的過程,展示了德勒茲對身體、生成與流動性的廣義理解。他們的存在和文化實踐是不斷流動、重組和生成的,不斷跨越邊界,形成新的身份、文化和社群。這種現象與德勒茲的「無器官身體」概念在去中心化、多重生成、力量和情感的流動性上具有共通之處。
Sep 29, 2024
Host Studio
克里斯蒂瓦的「詩性語言」與文化創造的潛力
朱莉婭·克里斯蒂瓦的詩性語言理論強調語言不僅僅是傳遞信息的工具,它本身具有一種突破固有意義結構的潛力,能夠解放新的可能性。她認為,詩性語言可以挑戰傳統的符號系統,揭示潛藏在背後的無意識和情感力量。克里斯蒂瓦的這一思想可以在新文創中為文化創新提供新的視角,尤其是當結合在地智慧時:
無意識與文化符號的重構:在地智慧中常常蘊含著集體無意識和深層的文化符號,克里斯蒂瓦的詩性語言理論可以幫助我們通過重新解讀這些符號,挖掘它們背後的情感和潛在意義。在新文創項目中,可以設計具象與抽象結合的文化產品,通過符號的解構與重構,揭示傳統文化中的深層情感。例如:在設計基於婆羅洲神話的當代藝術裝置時,可以通過解構神話中的人物形象和符號,挖掘其背後隱藏的無意識情感(如對自然的畏懼與敬畏),並通過現代藝術語言將其重新表現出來。
情感力量的解放:克里斯蒂瓦認為詩性語言具有解放情感力量的潛能。在新文創教育中,這種觀點可以啟發創作者通過解放情感、突破傳統符號結構,來創造具有情感沖擊力的文化作品。例如,鼓勵學生用非傳統的方式表達對地方文化的理解,打破固定的文化模式,創造出具有強烈情感張力的新形式。例如:讓學生通過個人化的創作(如繪畫、視頻、表演等),結合在地智慧中的儀式和情感體驗,打破既有的文化形式,創造出個人化與地方文化融合的新作品。這種作品可以是非線性敘事的,通過情感的直接傳達來打破傳統結構。
「詩性共創」與「Com-emory」概念的融合
結合我們之前討論過的「Com-emory」概念,即共同創造彼此共享的經驗與記憶,維柯、雅各布森和克里斯蒂瓦的詩性理論可以進一步賦予「新文創」以更加情感化、符號化和創新性的意義。
集體詩性智慧的共創:維柯的詩性智慧是集體的創造,通過集體情感體驗生成新的文化意義。在新文創教育中,我們可以通過集體的文化活動或合作項目,激發這種共創的詩性智慧,讓社區與創作者一起參與文化創作,形成集體的「Com-emory」。例如:通過社區文化節或藝術節,邀請社區成員、藝術家和文化工作者一起參與,在地方智慧的基礎上共創藝術作品。這種共創不僅僅是為了展示傳統文化,更是為了通過集體情感體驗生成新的文化形式。
符號與記憶的互動:結合雅各布森的符號學與克里斯蒂瓦的詩性語言,「Com-emory」可以通過符號的重新配置與情感力量的釋放,實現文化記憶的再造。例如,在設計文化活動或教育項目時,可以通過不同符號系統的互動(如文字、圖像、聲音等),讓參與者在體驗中共同創造出新的文化記憶。例如:通過設計一個互動式的文化教育平台,利用新媒體技術讓學生通過虛擬現實或增強現實的方式,參與到地方文化的記憶中,形成一種多維度的、詩性化的文化體驗。
通過結合維柯的「詩性智慧」、雅各布森的「詩性功能」和克里斯蒂瓦的「詩性語言」,新文創可以在情感驅動、符號創新和文化再造的基礎上,生成出具有深度、情感共鳴和現代性的文化產品和教育模式。這種模式不僅能有效結合在地智慧,還能通過陳明發博士提出的「Com-emory」模式,實現文化的共創與共享,使文化創意教育成為一條連通過去、現在與未來的動態生成性路徑。
Sep 30, 2024
Host Studio
愛墾APP:取徑维雅克生成詩性文創
將維柯、雅各布森和克里斯蒂瓦的「詩性」概念融入爱垦APP新階段系列所討論的內容,可以通過以下幾步展開。每位思想家的「詩性」理論都為文化創意的理解文化創意的理解提供了不同的視角,將它們結合到新文創-在地智慧-宇宙文創的框架中,可以為我們提供一個更為深刻的文化教育和創作模式。
維柯的「詩性智慧」與生成性的文化創意
維柯的「詩性智慧」強調的是原始人類面對自然、社會和自我時的「顫栗」感受,這種感受構成了語言、神話、儀式等文化形式的生成過程。維柯認為詩性智慧是人類創造力的根本源泉,它是一種面對世界時的情感驅動,具有直接的、形象化的特質。在新文創與在地智慧的結合中,維柯的詩性智慧可以為文化創作提供一個情感驅動的起點:
情感驅動的文化創作:我們可以鼓勵創作者通過情感經驗和地方智慧的直接感受,去產生新的文化表達。例如,將婆羅洲的自然景觀、當地的儀式和神話重新形象化,並通過當代的視覺藝術、音樂或舞台表演呈現出來。這種創作不僅是對傳統的重復,還在情感的基礎上賦予其新的生命力。例如:通過感受婆羅洲熱帶雨林的威嚴和神秘,將當地土著的自然崇拜儀式與現代生態保護相結合,創造出一系列關於自然與人類共存的多媒體藝術作品。這種作品不僅展現了文化的當代性,也喚起了人類面對大自然時的「顫栗」情感。
生成性與文化再造:維柯的「生成性」強調文化不是固化的,而是通過情感、經驗和智慧不斷再生的過程。結合在地智慧,文化創意應當是一種不斷變化和重構的實踐。可以設計靈活的創意平台,讓地方智慧在實踐中得到更新和再造。例如:可以通過社區參與設計文化節日活動,在這些活動中,結合維柯的詩性智慧,讓傳統的祭祀儀式與現代音樂、舞蹈和數字技術結合,生成一個新的「節慶體驗」,賦予古老習俗新的當代意義。
雅各布森的「詩性功能」與文化表達的結構
羅曼·雅各布森的詩性功能理論認為語言不僅僅是信息傳遞的工具,更是一種自指的、具有審美特質的表達系統。他強調語言中的詩性功能,即語言的形式和結構可以在意義的傳遞中佔據主導地位。結合雅各布森的詩性功能理論,新文創可以通過對語言、符號、文化形式的精細設計來創造新的文化產品:
符號與形式的創新:在新文創的框架中,我們可以通過對符號和語言形式的精細設計,重構文化表達。結合在地智慧,這意味著對地方語言、符號、圖案等文化元素進行重新組織,創造出具有現代美學特質的新形式。例如,將傳統的婆羅洲雕刻藝術的幾何圖形符號與現代數字設計結合,形成具有新詩性特質的文化產品。例如:設計一系列以婆羅洲傳統圖騰為基礎的現代化平面設計作品,通過雅各布森的詩性功能,將這些傳統符號重新排列組合,使它們在新的語境中產生新的文化意義。這可以是時尚設計、標識符號甚至是建築裝飾的一部分。
敘事與多重文本的建構:雅各布森的詩性理論也可以指導我們如何在文化敘事中使用多重意義的層次。結合在地智慧,我們可以通過敘事設計來傳遞多層次的文化信息。例如,設計互動式展覽或文化體驗,讓觀眾通過不同層次的文本和符號解讀,感受文化的複雜性和多樣性。例如:可以設計一個基於華人宗祠歷史的多媒體展覽,通過不同的音頻、影像、互動符號,讓觀眾參與到宗祠的歷史故事中,感受其多重意義和文化層次。
Sep 30, 2024
Host Studio
愛墾APP: 德勒兹對話意念科學
以下「意念科學」中常見的論點,與德勒茲的「平面」、「無器官身體」(Body without Organs)和「皺褶」(Fold)等核心概念可能聯系起來。下面將逐一分析這些概念與德勒茲哲學的關係:
「宇宙有一種無所不在的能量,稱之為『生命體能量』」:德勒茲的「平面」(Plane of Immanence)恰好可以解釋這種無所不在的能量概念。在德勒茲的哲學中,平面指的是一種存在的統一場域,所有的生命和物質都在這個平面上共存、相互作用,不存在等級劃分。這與「生命體能量」遍佈宇宙、連接萬物的觀點相符,所有的事物都在同一個平面上運作,並且能量是這種運作的基礎。
「從外在刺激抽身、向內專注,慈悲心讓腦部躍升到一種充滿能量的高度感官覺」:德勒茲的「無器官身體」概念可以幫助解釋這點。無器官身體是指去掉了功能性或固定用途的身體,能夠超越原有的局限性,進入一種潛能無限的狀態。通過抽離外界干擾,專注內在,個體的身體和意識不再受到原有結構的限制,從而進入一個更高感官覺知狀態,這與德勒茲所描述的超越固定身體形態、激發無窮潛能的無器官身體極為吻合。
「意念能給無生物『充滿』能量」:這個論點可以通過德勒茲的「皺褶」(Fold)概念來理解。皺褶的概念打破了傳統的內外二分法,表明意識與物質之間沒有固定的界限,它們可以相互折疊、相互滲透。意念可以通過皺褶影響無生物,把自身的能量傳遞到物質世界中。這種意識對物質的影響體現了德勒茲關於意識與物質的動態交互和轉化。
「對抗別人的負面意念最有效的方法是唸正教的禱告文」:從德勒茲的角度來看,禱文作為語言的實踐,可以被視作一種重新構造「無器官身體」的方式。通過言語(禱文)的重覆和儀式化,個體可以在平面上重新組織自我,構建出不同的能量狀態,從而抵御外界負面影響。這與德勒茲對語言的生成力量和身體的去功能化過程相呼應。
「宇宙所有物質都與零點能量場互動」:這個觀點可以與德勒茲的「平面」概念直接相關。德勒茲認為,所有事物都在同一平面上相互作用,並且沒有一個獨立的、分離的存在。零點能量場的概念本身就是一種統一的場域,萬物都參與其中,不斷交換能量。這與德勒茲的平面理論的核心思想相符,即所有的生命和物質都在一個統一的場域中運作。
「量子粒子被認為是憑空蹦出來的,導致毫無原因的能量擺動」:這個論點與德勒茲的「差異與重覆」概念相關。德勒茲認為,差異是世界運作的核心,所有的存在都是差異性的表現,而這些差異性的重覆則不斷產生新的變動。量子粒子的隨機出現與消失可以看作是差異的生成與消解,隨機擺動本身是對差異不斷生成的表現。
「意識是一種不受我們身體局限的物質,是一條理分明的能量,有能力改變物質事件」:這個觀點可以通過「無器官身體」來理解。無器官身體指的是一個超越傳統器官功能的存在,意識不再受限於身體的物理結構,而是一種自由流動的能量,具有重塑物質和事件的潛力。德勒茲認為,意識是一種創造性的力量,它可以通過復雜的折疊(fold)作用,影響和改變物質世界。
「以心控物」能力超越時間、空間的限制:德勒茲的「皺褶」理論可以解釋這種超越時間和空間的能力。在皺褶的結構中,內外的邊界是模糊的,時間和空間本身也是流動的,能夠被折疊和重新塑造。通過意識的「皺褶」作用,個體能夠跨越物質世界的物理限制,達到與物質直接互動的效果。這種互動可以超越傳統時間與空間的觀念,正如意念科學中的「以心控物」所描述的那樣。
意念科學中常見的論點,如宇宙能量、意識超越物質、禱文的作用等,都可以通過德勒茲的「平面」、「無器官身體」和「皺褶」等核心概念找到哲學上的呼應。德勒茲的哲學強調的是一種流動性、生成性和無界限的存在狀態,與意念科學中的能量和意識的動態互動高度契合。
Oct 2, 2024
Host Studio
愛墾APP: 《情感的文化政治》
Sara Ahmed 在 2004 年的著作《情感的文化政治》(The Cultural Politics of Emotion)中,提出了關於情感在社會和政治生活中的核心作用的獨特觀點。她的論點集中在情感如何在社會關係、身份建構和權力結構中發揮作用,情感不僅是個人的內部體驗,還參與了更廣泛的社會和文化過程:
情感的社會建構: Ahmed強調,情感並非僅僅是個體內在的心理狀態,而是通過社會建構形成的。她認為情感是在特定的社會、歷史和文化背景中產生的,並通過社會關係和權力結構在社會中流動和傳播。情感不僅塑造個體的感知和行為,還影響集體的身份建構和社會結構。
情感與權力的交織: 她認為情感與權力關係密切相關,尤其是權力如何通過情感在社會中傳播。她分析了恐懼、愛、恨、羞恥等情感,探討這些情感如何被動員以維持或挑戰現存的社會秩序。例如,恐懼常被用於邊界劃分,將某些群體描繪為「外來者」或「威脅」,從而鞏固社會中的排斥機制;而愛則被用來維系特定的群體認同和集體歸屬感。
情感的「附著性」與「指向性」:Ahmed 介紹了情感的附著性(stickiness)概念,指的是情感如何依附於特定的對象或人群,並賦予它們特定的意義。情感通過附著某些符號、身體或事物來塑造我們對這些對象的感知。例如,「恐怖分子」這一概念往往與恐懼情感相聯系,進而強化對某些族群的負面刻板印象。
此外,她還討論了情感的指向性(intentionality)。情感不是漂浮的,而是有其特定的指向,它們通過與特定對象、情境或他人相關聯而獲得意義。這種指向性揭示了情感如何構成並維系社會邊界和群體區分。
情感與集體身份建構:Ahmed 認為情感在群體身份的形成和維護中起著關鍵作用。她分析了情感如何幫助建構和維持國家、種族、性別和性取向等集體身份。例如,民族主義可以通過「愛國」情感來構建對國家的忠誠感和歸屬感,同時通過恐懼和仇恨情感對外界進行排斥和其他化。情感成為了集體認同的核心工具,它通過規范哪些情感應該被表達,哪些情感應該被抑制,來維持社會規范。
情感的政治與文化效應:她強調情感本身就是一種政治力量。她提出,情感的流動不僅是在個體之間的互動中發生,也在政治、文化和社會運動中起著作用。例如,在移民、種族和性別問題上,情感被用於政治動員、群體邊界的塑造以及對權力結構的維護或顛覆。她尤其關注恐懼政治,探討恐懼情感如何在國家政策和公眾話語中被操控,用於塑造對他者(如移民、少數族裔)的排斥和壓迫。
情感的分布與不平等:Ahmed 還分析了情感在社會中的不平等分佈。不同群體對特定情感的體驗、表達和獲得認同的方式是不同的。例如,某些群體的憤怒可能被視為「正當的」,而另一些群體的憤怒則可能被貶低為「非理性的」或「危險的」。這種情感的社會不平等反映了權力關係的運作,情感的分配方式有助於維持現有的社會等級結構。
情感的反抗潛力:盡管情感常被用於維持權力關係,Ahmed 也指出,情感具有反抗的潛力。情感能夠成為對抗壓迫、挑戰不公和構建新社會關係的工具。例如,羞恥可以被用於社會控制,但也可以被轉化為憤怒,從而激發個體或群體的反抗行動。Ahmed 認為通過重新認識和使用情感,邊緣化群體可以在文化和政治中重新奪回話語權。
Sara Ahmed 的《情感的文化政治》通過細致的理論分析,展示了情感不僅是個人內在的體驗,更是複雜的社會、文化和政治力量。她強調情感的社會建構性以及它們如何被用於構建社會邊界、維持或挑戰權力結構。Ahmed 通過對情感流動、附著性和指向性的分析,揭示了情感在身份認同、政治動員和社會互動中的核心作用。
這本書在文化研究、性別研究、後殖民理論以及情感研究領域具有重要影響,促使學者重新思考情感在社會和政治中的位置,並為研究情感如何與權力、身份和文化生產相互交織提供了一個關鍵的理論框架。
Oct 9, 2024
Host Studio
﹝美﹞段義孚(1930-2022):冰雕

「害羞的人,不愛交際的人,或者像我這樣被古怪的追求抑制了社交需要的人,或許更應該投身於大自然。不容易適應環境的人容易把情感寄託於動植物身上,因為動植物不會對人有成見。但即使是動植物也不是絕對可靠的,因為生物也會形成群體:許多動植物都有社會性,它們在自己的世界裡也會有歧視、包容和排斥的現象。最後,可能只有待在無機物的環境中,例如沙漠、冰山裡,人們才能心曠神怡,寵辱偕忘。
我喜歡大自然嗎?在我們這個道德標準經常變化的後現代社會裡,唯一不變的信條,即最無可爭議的道德準則,就是『你應該熱愛大自然』。我承認,如果大家都像很多年輕的環保人士那樣,用『生命』這個詞來指代大自然的話,那麼我不算熱愛大自然,甚至不太喜歡大自然。對於有機體為了繁衍生息而迸發出的奮進和狡黠,我懷有一種矛盾的態度。反而,宇宙中擁有這麼多毫無生機的『礦物』,這讓我感到安慰而不是沮喪。持這種態度的絕不只是我一個人。然而,我們的數量是很小的,因為如果物種要繁殖、生物要進化,就不能容許有太多我們這樣的個體存在。
我對礦物的偏愛一定很深,因為它銘刻在我最早的記憶中。我當時大約3歲,住在天津,冬天很冷,池塘裡都結冰了。我每天下午要睡午覺,剛醒來的時候脾氣就很不好──就像很多小孩子一樣,我也有『起床氣』。你可能還記得,母親預料到我弟弟會發脾氣,就畫了一輛汽車。為了安撫我,我的奶媽做了一件更富有想像力的事。她在煙灰缸裡裝滿了水,放在窗外的窗臺上,讓它暴露在寒冷的天氣裡。她見我快要醒過來,便拿來煙灰缸,在我床邊的桌子上翻過來,用刀柄輕輕敲了一下,然後──哎呀!看哪!──一個閃閃發光的冰雕掉了出來。在我一個小孩子的眼裡,這簡直就是魔法。」── 志丞、劉蘇(譯):〈我的個性:從父母到岩土〉,《我是誰?:段義孚自傳》(上海:上海書店出版社,2023年8月),頁87-88。圖片出處:https://reurl.cc/V0zNYn
Dec 23, 2024
Host Studio
納博科夫·夢境的現成背景~~普通人是多麽不注意蝴蝶,真是令人吃驚。為了讓我那對這一點表示懷疑的同伴明白,我故意問帆布背包里裝著加繆作品的健壯的瑞士徒步旅行者,他在沿小路下山的時候有沒有看見蝴蝶。“沒有,”他平靜地回答道。而大群的蝴蝶剛剛才在那里讓你我開心不已。可是,下面的情況也是真的,當我回憶有關一九〇六年前的一個夏季——也就是說,在我的第一份地點標簽上的日期之前——的一條細節記得清清楚楚、以後再也沒有去過的小路的形象的時候,卻連一隻翅膀、翅膀的一次扇動、一道天藍色的閃光、一朵亮閃閃的點綴著飛蛾的花都沒有能夠看得出來,就好像有人在亞德里亞海岸上施行了一種邪惡的妖術,使那里所有的“鱗翅們”(如我們中間愛用俚語的人所說)都隱了形。
一個昆蟲學家有朝一日在一位興高采烈、已經摘下了防護帽的植物學家旁邊,跋涉在一顆類似的行星上的令人驚駭的植物群中,眼前卻連一隻昆蟲也看不見的時候,可能就會有這種同樣的感覺;就這樣(奇特地證明了一個奇特的事實:只要可能,一個人幼年時的景象,會被一個具有經濟頭腦的制片人,用做我們成年後夢境的現成背景),我的某個反覆出現的噩夢里的那座海邊的山頂上——我曾在清醒時把一張可折疊的網偷偷弄到了那里去——長滿了生機勃勃的百里香和草木犀,但是卻不可思議地缺乏那兒應該具有的任何蝴蝶。(弗拉基米爾·納博科夫《說吧,記憶:自傳追述》)
Jan 2, 2025
Host Studio
丹納·藝術哲學:希臘的雕塑~~濫用戰艦和軍隊,揮霍從美洲掠取得來的金銀,虛擲最優秀的子弟的熱血,攸關國家性命的熱血,消耗在窮兵黷武,一次又一次的十字軍上面;那種固執,那種風魔,使西班牙在一個半世紀以後民窮財盡,倒在歐羅巴腳下。
但是那股熱誠,那種不可一世的聲威,那種舉國狂熱的熱情,使西班牙的臣民醉心於君主政體,為之而集中他們的精力,醉心國家的事業,為之而鞠躬盡瘁。他們一心一意用服從來發揚宗教與王權,只想把信徒、戰士、崇拜者,團結在教會與王座的周圍。異教裁判所的法官和十字軍的戰士,都保存著中世紀的騎士思想,神秘氣息,陰沉激烈的脾氣,殘暴與偏狹的性格。
藝術家不是孤立的人。我們隔了幾世紀只聽到藝術家的聲音;但在傳到我們耳邊來的響亮聲音之下,還能辨別出群眾的複雜而無窮無盡的歌聲,像一大片低沉的嗡嗡聲一樣,在藝術家四周齊聲歌唱。只因為有了這一片和聲,藝術家才能成其為偉大。 在各人特有的差別中始終保持同一家族的面貌。
和魯本斯一樣,他們喜歡表現壯健的人體,生命的豐滿與顫動,血液充沛,感覺靈敏,在人身上充分透露出來的充血的軟肉,現實的,往往還是粗野的人物,活潑放肆的動作,鋪繡盤花,光豔照人的衣料,綢緞與紅布的反光,或是飄蕩或是團皺的帳帷簾幔。到了今日,他們同時代的大宗師的榮名似乎把他們湮沒了,你們可以看到同樣暴烈與可怕的人物,同樣的凶殺和離奇的結局,同樣突如其來和放縱的情慾,同樣混亂,奇特,過火而又輝煌的問題,同樣對田野與風景抱著詩意濃郁的感情,同樣寫一半敏感而愛情深厚的婦女。(引自:第一章)
我們現在把這個原則應用於人,先應用在人的精神生活方面,以及以精神生活為對象的藝術,戲劇音樂、小說、戲劇、史詩和一般的文學。在這里,特徵的重要的次序是怎樣的呢?怎樣確定各種變化的程度呢?——歷史給我們一個很可靠很簡單的方法;因為外界的事故影響到人,使他一層一層的思想感情發生各種程度的變化。
時間在我們身上刮、刨、挖掘,像楸子刨地似的,暴露出我們精神上的地質形態。在時間侵蝕之下,我們重重疊疊的地層一層一層剝落,有的快一些,有的慢一些。容易開墾的土質好比松軟的沖積層,完全堆在浮面,只消鏟幾下就去掉了;接著是粘合比較牢固的石灰和更厚的砂土,需要多費點兒勁才能鏟除。
往下去是青石、雲石、一層一層的片形石,非常結實,抵抗力很強;需要連續幾代的工作,挖著極深的坑道,三番四復的爆炸,才能掘掉。再往下去是太古時代的花崗石,埋在地下不知有多少深,那是全部結構的支柱,千百年的攻擊的力量無論如何猛烈,也不能把那個岩層完全去掉。 浮在人的表面上的是持續三四年的一些生活習慣與思想感情;這是流行的風氣,暫時的東西。
一個人到美洲或中國去游歷回來,發現巴黎和他離開的時候大不相同。他覺得自己變了內地人,樣樣都茫無頭緒;說笑打趣的方式改變了;俱樂部和小戲院中的詞匯不同了;時髦朋友所講究的不是從前那種漂亮了,在人前誇耀的是另外一批背心,另外一批領帶了;他的胡鬧與駭人聽聞的行為也轉向另一方面;時髦人物的名稱也是新興的;我們前前後後有過「小爺」、「不可思議」,「俏哥兒」、「花花公子」、「獅子」、「根特佬」,「小白臉」、「小浪蕩」。
不消幾年,時行的名稱和東西都可一掃而空,全部換新;時裝的變化正好衡量這種精神狀態的變化;在人的一切特徵中,這是最浮淺最不穩固的。——下面是一層略為堅固一些的特徵,可以持續二十年、三十年、四十年,大概有半個歷史時期。我們最近正看到這樣的一層消滅:中心是一八三〇年前後。......
Jan 23, 2025
Host Studio
3. 如何將「情動」變成「文化創意的驅動力」?
愛墾網16年来的公益分享說明,我們可以透過三個步驟來「channel」弱小個體的情動,使之變成文化創意的動力:
(1)察覺:從「被情動控制」,到「察覺情動流動」
•問題:我們經常以為自己是「自由的」,但其實我們的情感經常被外界觸發,例如社群媒體的憤怒、廣告的刺激、新聞的恐慌。
•解法:學會「meta-awareness」(超覺察),即對自己的情緒進行反思:「我現在的情緒來自哪裡?是我的內在需求,還是外部操弄?」
例子:村上春樹的寫作
村上春樹提到,他的許多作品來自個人的情感狀態,但他不會被動地讓情緒淹沒自己,而是「觀察」它們,然後用文字來進行轉化。例如,他透過跑步來管理自己的情動,讓身體的律動轉化為寫作的節奏。
文創應用:這種方法適用於音樂、詩歌、電影、設計等領域。當你察覺到自己被某種情緒影響時,不要急著壓抑或沉溺,而是去「體驗」它,然後用藝術形式來表達它。
陳明發博士-愛墾網對2024年諾貝爾文學獎得主韓江的作品所作的剖析與推介,也是往這個情動-文創感情生命衝力的方向推進。
(2)轉化:將「情感」變成「象徵性創作」
•問題:大多數人的情感表達是直接性的,例如生氣就發火,悲傷就哭泣,但這些都是即時釋放,並沒有經過創造性的轉化。
•解法:用「象徵」來轉化情動。
例子:草的「波點宇宙」
草間彌生(Kusama Yayoi,1929年)的作品充滿重複的波點(polka dots),這其實是她個人對焦慮和精神分裂症的回應。她透過視覺符號來將自己的情動外化,而非讓自己被痛苦吞噬。
文創應用:當你有強烈的情緒時,嘗試找一種符號、物件或模式來轉化它。例如,若你對於「被操控」感到憤怒,可以透過拼貼藝術來拆解廣告,或者用劇場表演來重構「操弄與抵抗」的情境。
愛墾網在曲藝、說唱、脱口秀、演說会带動等舞台文創的推廣,也是嘗試讓文化創意真正實現其“文化+經濟”交融的整體社會意義。
(3)能動:透過「情動參與」創造共鳴
• 問題:個人的情感可以很強烈,但如果不能與他人共鳴,就很難轉化為文化影響力。
•解法:將個人的情動轉化為集體的感受,讓它成為一種文化運動。
例子:「沉浸式文創」的力量
•「反烏托邦小說」(如《1984》)將焦慮轉化為警世預言,讓讀者參與其中。
•「心理劇場」(如波赫士的詩歌)用像徵手法,把個體情緒帶入群體情感的共振。(克里斯蒂瓦的“個人符號-社會像徵”,是個極重要的情動理論基礎。)
•「互動式博物館」(如體驗戰爭的VR裝置)讓觀者透過身心投入,進入另一種情動體驗。
文創應用:如果你的創作能夠讓觀眾「情動參與」,那麼你的作品就不再只是個人的情緒宣洩,而是一種陳明發博士一直在強調共同的文化記憶(com-emory)。
4. 結論:讓情動成為倫理與文創的「流動能量」
情感的確可以是摧毀性的,但它也可以是建設性的,只要我們懂得駕馭它,而非被它駕馭。
Channel your affect,transform it into creative energy. 從被操控的情緒,到創造性的情動管理。
文創建議:「Com-emory」與地方文化的情動詮釋
陳明發博士-愛墾網素來提倡的「Com-emory」概念,正好可以結合列維納斯的面容倫理與情動參與。如何讓地方文創不只是「產品」,而是一種引發記憶與情感共振的文化行動?如果我們的文化創意能夠轉化人們的情動,使他們在地方感(sense of place)中重新找回情感的根源,那麼文創就不僅是商品,而是一種詩意的倫理實踐。
Mar 20, 2025
Host Studio
愛墾APP:法國哲學家特里斯坦·加西亞(Tristan Garcia)說過,(大意)人現在被好多情感情緒操弄,好intense,但可以嘗試擺脫它;這些情感本身雖具摧毀性,但如果懂得轉化,可以成為一種倫理道德力量。佛洛伊德也講過「力必多」政治。
可是,在剝削自己的壓抑與消費的沉溺以外,文創人可如何疏導(channel)生自語言前的情動,以及已經被名目化、外在化的情緒,使它們成為文創的感情衝力?
2008年以来,觀察本土政治分崩離析現象的結果,文創研究者陳明發博士已經體會到,這個“情感普遍被綁架”的問題非常關鍵。
他2014年寫的短詩〈綁匪〉(筆名:陳楨),是陳氏這個時期的一個記錄。如何從情感的操弄與消費性沉溺中擺脫,進而將情動(affect)轉化為一種倫理道德力量,甚至是文化創意的動能,成了陳明發多年来文創學術努力的重要方向。現從幾個層面給這問題做個階段性的小結——
1. 由「被情感操弄」到「管理情動」 首先,加西亞(特別是在2016年出版的《The Life Intense—A Modern Obsession》中)指出,現代社會讓我們的情感變得極度強烈(intense),這種強烈可能是一種操弄,讓我們陷入無止境的興奮、憤怒、焦慮、痛苦或快感之中。然而,他並不是要我們拒絕情感,而是要我們理解並學會駕馭情動的力量,避免成為它的奴隸。 這與佛洛伊德的「力必多」(Libidinal Politics)相呼應。
佛洛伊德認為,個體的能量不只是純粹的生理衝動(libido),而是被社會、文化所規訓,使我們內在壓抑,或者反過來成為消費文化的囚徒。
從壓抑與消費,到「情動轉化」
大多數人對情緒的處理,主要是兩種極端方式:
壓抑自己(Repression)— 壓抑、克制、理性化,甚至冷漠地否定情緒。但這會導致內部焦慮,甚至精神創傷。
沉溺於消費性情感(Addictive Consumption of Emotions)— 透過消費(電影、遊戲、社交媒體、娛樂、短視頻、)來麻醉自己,以為這就是「表達情緒」。但這其實是被動的,不是真正的情感轉化。
例子:社交媒體的「情動投機」
社交媒體利用人類的情動機制,製造「快樂—焦慮—憤怒」循環,使我們情感被操控,而不是我們主動管理情動。這是一種情動的剝削,使我們成為被動的消費者,而非創造者。
更好的方法是「情動轉化」(Affective Transmutation,或譯嬗变、蜕變)
這裡,Garcia 和佛洛伊德的觀點可以與德勒茲(Deleuze)與瓜塔里(Guattari)的「慾望流動」(Desiring-Production)結合。我們的情動能量並不應該只是被動地接受,而應該主動地蜕轉成創造性動能。
所以,問題的關鍵是:如何channel這些情動,使之成為文化創意的驅動力?
Mar 21, 2025
Host Studio
89.It may also be said that God as Architect satisfies in all respects God as Lawgiver, and thus that sins must bear their penalty with them, through the order of nature, and even in virtue of the mechanical structure of things; and similarly that noble actions will attain their rewards by ways which, on the bodily side, are mechanical, although this cannot and ought not always to happen immediately.
還可以得出,作為建築師的上帝在一切方面都滿足作為立法者的上帝,因而罪惡必通過自然的秩序、乃至事物的機械結構而受到懲罰;同樣,高尚的行為在形體方面也通過機械的方式獲得獎勵,盡管這不可能也不應該經常立刻發生。
解釋:自然的物理領域和神恩的道德領域之間的前定和諧意味著,上帝並不需要去行使超自然的奇跡來懲惡揚善,神恩總是通過自然的方式表現出來,否則,上帝就成了個糟糕的鐘表匠。
90 Finally, under this perfect government no good action would be unrewarded and no bad one unpunished, and all should issue in the well-being of the good, that is to say, of those who are not malcontents in this great state, but who trust in Providence, after having done their duty, and who love and imitate, as is meet, the Author of all good, finding pleasure in the contemplation of His perfections, as is the way of genuine 『pure love,』 which takes pleasure in the happiness of the beloved. This it is which leads wise and virtuous people to devote their energies to everything which appears in harmony with the presumptive or antecedent will of God, and yet makes them content with what God actually brings to pass by His secret, consequent and positive [decisive] will, recognizing that if we could sufficiently understand the order of the universe, we should find that it exceeds all the desires of the wisest men, and that it is impossible to make it better than it is, not only as a whole and in general but also for ourselves in particular, if we are attached, as we ought to be, to the Author of all, not only as to the architect and efficient cause of our being, but as to our master and to the final cause, which ought to be the whole aim of our will, and which can alone make our happiness. (Theod. Pref. 134,ad fin., 278.)
最後,在這一完美的統治下,沒有任何善的行為不會被獎勵,沒有任何惡的行為不會被懲罰,所有這些都是為了善人的幸福,也就是說,為了那些在這一偉大國度毫無怨言、盡職責而信天命的人,那些如其所應該的那樣去熱愛並仿效那所有善的創造者、在對他的完滿性的沉思中找到快樂的人,這種從所愛對象的幸福中獲得快樂乃是真正的「純愛」之道。正是因此,賢明之士致力於與上帝的假定的、在先的意志相一致的任何事情,而滿足於上帝通過他的隱秘的、結果的和決定的意志所實際帶來的事情,他們認識到,如果人們能夠充分理解宇宙的秩序,就會發現它超出了最聰慧的人的所有期望,無論就整體一般而言,還是就我們個別而言,都不可能使它變得比現在更好,只要我們能夠如我們所應該的那樣歸附萬物的創造者,不僅歸附作為我們存在的建築師和動力因的上帝,而且歸附作為我們的主宰和目的因的上帝,他應該成為我們意志的全部目的,僅僅是他就足以使我們幸福。(參見《神正論》,前言,第134節,正文,第278節)
解釋:萊布尼茨引用了經院哲學的兩個重要術語,即上帝的假定的、在先的意志(presumptive or antecedent will)和上帝的結果的和決定(consequent and positive will)的意志。上帝的假定的、在先的意志是指上帝主觀上希望人類在各方面都得到最大的幸福;上帝的結果的和決定的意志是指由於世界和人的局限性,以及個體與個體之間、整體和部分之間還有過去、現在與將來之間必須相協調的極端複雜性,上帝在客觀上只能給予人類在現實條件制約之下的盡可能多的幸福。上帝的結果的和決定的意志不是人類的有限的理智所能夠認識和預料的,因此,賢明之士盡人事而聽天命,在行動時遵循上帝的假定的、在先的意志,為全人類的幸福而努力,無論其結果如何都欣然接受,因為這是上帝的結果的和決定的意志的體現。
萊布尼茨認為,最高的德性在於愛上帝。在他看來,愛是非功利性的,是「從所愛對象的幸福中獲得快樂」,而上帝作為最完善、最幸福的存在,最值得人去愛,也最能給人帶來幸福。愛上帝意味著我們認為他的所作所為都是最完善的,他所創造的世界是所有可能世界中最好的世界。
(莱布尼兹《單子論》,桑靖宇翻譯/註釋( 2008年初);The Monadology (1714)by Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz [1646-1716],English edition translated by Robert Latta (1898); 作者單位:武漢大學哲學學院教授,原見:百度文庫)
May 6, 2025
Host Studio
83.Among other differences which exist between ordinary souls and minds [esprits], some of which differences I have already noted, there is also this: that souls in general are living mirrors or images of the universe of created things, but that minds are also images of the Deity or Author of nature Himself, capable of knowing the system of the universe, and to some extent of imitating it through architectonic ensamples [echantillons], each mind being like a small divinity in its own sphere. (Theod. 147.)
在普通靈魂和心靈的區別中,我對此已談到了一些①,還有這一點:即一般的靈魂是創造物的宇宙的活的鏡子或映象,而心靈則還是神或自然的創造者本身的肖像,能夠認識宇宙的秩序,並在一定程度上能通過例如建築來模仿它,每一心靈在自身領域內就像是個小神。(參見《神正論》,第147節)
① 參見《單子論》第 29 -30 節
解釋:人的心靈由於具有了理性,從而具有了某種神性,這使他不僅像其他靈魂一樣是宇宙的活鏡,更是上帝的肖像。對人的理性思維能力和實踐能力的推崇體現了萊布尼茨作為理性主義哲學家的基本特色和樂觀主義精神。值得注意的是,這與強調理性的軟弱無力的新教思想的信仰主義是恰恰相反的,盡管萊布尼茨在名義上也是新教徒。
84.It is this that enables spirits [or minds—esprits] to enter into a kind of fellowship with God, and brings it about that in relation to them He is not only what an inventor is to his machine (which is the relation of God to other created things), but also what a prince is to his subjects, and, indeed, what a father is to his children.
正是這一點使得精神或心靈進入到一種與上帝的伙伴關係,使得上帝與他們的關係不僅僅是發明家與他的機器的關係(上帝與其他創造物的關係正是如此),而且還是君主與其臣民的關係,甚至還是父親與其子女的關係。
解釋:托馬斯·阿奎那認為人可以與上帝形成一種友愛關係,但前提是必須信仰道成肉身的耶穌,從而能分有神性。但在萊布尼茨看來,人與上帝的伙伴關係基於人具有理性這一點就足夠了,不需要信仰或奇跡的因素。這充分地表現了萊布尼茨理性神學中的人本主義色彩。
85. Whence it is easy to conclude that the totality [assemblage] of all spirits [esprits] must compose the City of God, that is to say, the most perfect State that is possible, under the most perfect of Monarchs. (Theod. 146; Abrege, Object. 2.)
由此很容易得出,所有精神的全體必構成了上帝之城,也就是說,在最完美的君主統治之下的盡可能最完美的國度。(參見《神正論》,第146節,節略,異議2)
解釋:奧古斯丁的「上帝之城」指的是與世俗社會相對而言的基督徒的教會,萊布尼茨的「上帝之城」則是指與自然界相對的整個人類社會(再加上天使等理性靈魂)。這表明萊布尼茨晚年的理性神學已突破傳統基督教的局限,而達到真正意義上的普世性。
86. This City of God, this truly universal monarchy, is a moral world in the natural world, and is the most exalted and most divine among the works of God; and it is in it that the glory of God really consists, for He would have no glory were not His greatness and His goodness known and admired by spirits [esprits]. It is also in relation to this divine City that God specially has goodness, while His wisdom and His power are manifested everywhere.
這一上帝之城,這一真正的普遍王國,是自然世界中的道德世界,是上帝的作品中最崇高、最神聖的部分;上帝的榮耀正在於此,因為如果上帝的偉大和善如果不為精神所認識和崇敬的話,那他就沒有榮耀可言。也正是在與這一神聖之城的關系中,上帝才特別具有了善,而他的智慧和力量則無處不在。
解釋:沒有人類社會的話,上帝的榮耀和善就無處體現。萊布尼茨的這一思想有著濃厚的人類中心論的色彩,當代的很多環境主義者、動物保護主義者恐怕不會喜歡。
87. As we have shown above that there is a perfect harmony between the two realms in nature, one of efficient, and the other of final causes, we should here notice also another harmony between the physical realm of nature and the moral realm of grace, that is to say, between God, considered as Architect of the mechanism [machine] of the universe and God considered as Monarch of the divine City of spirits [esprits]. (Theod. 62, 74, 112, 118, 130, 247,248.)
如上所示,在自然的兩個領域之間,即動力因的領域和目的因的領域之間,存在著完美的和諧,我們還應該注意到自然的物理領域和神恩的道德領域之間的另一種和諧,也就是說,作為宇宙機器的建築師的上帝和作為精神的神聖之城的君主的上帝之間的和諧。(參見《神正論》,第62節, 第74節,第112節, 第118節, 第130節, 第247節, 第248節)
May 7, 2025
Host Studio
78.These principles have given me a way of explaining naturally the union or rather the mutual agreement [conformite] of the soul and the organic body. The soul follows its own laws, and the body likewise follows its own laws; and they agree with each other in virtue of the pre-established harmony between all substances, since they are all representations of one and the same universe. (Theod. Pref. 340, 352, 353, 358.)
這些原理給予我一種方法,可以自然地解釋靈魂和有機形體之間的結合或一致。靈魂遵循自身的法則,形體也遵循自身的法則;憑借所有實體間的前定和諧,兩者之間能夠協調一致,因為它們都是同一宇宙的表象。(參見《神正論》前言,第340節, 第352節,第353節, 第358節)
79. Souls act according to the laws of final causes through appetitions, ends, and means. Bodies act according to the laws of efficient causes or motions. And the two realms, that of efficient causes and that of final causes, are in harmony with one another.
靈魂按照目的因通過欲求、目的和手段的法則而活動。形體依據動力因的或運動的法則而活動。這兩個領域,目的因的領域和動力因的領域,是彼此協調的。
80. Descartes recognized that souls cannot impart any force to bodies, because there is always the same quantity of force in matter. Nevertheless he was of opinion that the soul could change the direction of bodies. But that is because in his time it was not known that there is a law of nature which affirms also the conservation of the same total direction in matter. Had Descartes noticed this he would have come upon my system of pre-established harmony. (Theod. Pref. 22, 59-61, 63, 66, 345-348, 354, 355.)
笛卡爾認識到,靈魂不可能給予力量於形體,因為在物質中力保持相同的數量。然而他卻認為,靈魂可以改變形體的方向。但這是因為在他的時代,物質中運動方向的守恆這一自然律尚不為人所知。如果笛卡爾知道這一點,他一定會贊同我的前定和諧體系。(參見《神正論》前言,第22節, 第59-61節,第63節,第66節,第345-348節,第354節,第355節)
解釋:笛卡爾一方面把形體與靈魂割裂開來,另一方面又試圖想辦法使其相連系,以解釋身心互動的經驗事實。他認為,盡管靈魂不可能改變形體運動的數量,因為物質中運動量是守恆的,但靈魂可以通過大腦中的松果腺的中介而改變形體的運動方向。與之針鋒相對,萊布尼茨認為,不僅物質運動的數量是守恆的,而且其運動的方向也是守恆的,從而物質運動完全是自足的,不需要也不允許靈魂的干預。通過將笛卡爾的動量守恆定律改造成動力守恆定律,萊布尼茨為其前定和諧理論提供了物理學的基礎。
81. According to this system bodies act as if (to suppose the impossible) there were no souls, and souls act as if there were no bodies, and both act as if each influenced the other.
根據這一體系,形體就像不具有靈魂那樣(這當然是不可能的)活動,靈魂就像不擁有形體那樣活動,這兩者就像能相互影響那樣活動。
解釋:後來的笛卡爾主義者如馬勒布朗士等,放棄了笛卡爾的困難重重的身心直接相關聯的理論,提出了「偶因論」(occasionalism)來解釋身心關係。他們認為,靈魂和身體之間不存在真正的因果關係和相互作用,只是由於上帝的隨時干預,才使得身心之間保持協調一致。
萊布尼茨的前定和諧理論與偶因論有相同的地方,即都認為身心間不可能有真正的關聯;兩者的不同在於,偶因論依賴於上帝的隨時干預來保持身心間的協調,前定和諧理論則認為,上帝之在創始之初規定形體的規律與靈魂的規律協調一致,此後上帝就不再進行任何干預了。萊布尼茨認為,偶因論者實際上把上帝變成了個糟糕的鐘表匠,需要不斷的調整,才能讓他所造的形體和靈魂這兩塊表保持時間的一致。
第九部分 上帝之城 (第82節—即90節)
82. As regards minds [esprits] or rational souls, though I find that what I have just been saying is true of all living beings and animals (namely that animals and souls come into being when the world begins and no more come to an end that the world does), yet there is this peculiarity in rational animals, that their spermatic animalcules, so long as they are only spermatic, have merely ordinary or sensuous [sensitive] souls; but when those which are chosen [elus], so to speak, attain to human nature through an actual conception, their sensuous souls are raised to the rank of reason and to the prerogative of minds [esprits]. (Theod. 91, 397.)
至於心靈或理性靈魂,盡管我覺得我剛才所說的適用於所有的生物和動物(即動物和靈魂與宇宙同始同終),然而理性靈魂有其特殊性,即他們微小的精子動物,就他們是精子而言,就只具有普通的或感性的靈魂;但當那些被選中的小動物通過實際的受孕而獲得人性時,它們的感性靈魂就被提升到理性的層面,獲得了心靈的特權。(參見《神正論》,第91節, 第397節)
May 8, 2025
Host Studio
73.It also follows from this that there never is absolute birth [generation] nor complete death, in the strict sense, consisting in the separation of the soul from the body. What we call births [generations] are developments and growths, while what we call deaths are envelopments and diminutions.
由此還可知,不會有嚴格意義上的絕對的生,或就靈魂脫離形體而言的完全的死。我們所謂的生是指發展和成長,而我們所謂的死是指封藏和縮減。
解釋:受宗教思想影響的人常傾向於認為,生是靈魂與形體的結合,死是靈魂與形體的分離,萊布尼茨對此不以為然。他認為,靈魂由於自身的有限性而必然要與形體永遠相結合,這樣一來,生與死不過是形體在顯著狀態與不顯著狀態之間的變化而已。就靈魂本身而言,生與死不過是知覺的某種在有意識與無意識之間的轉化(參見《單子論》第21節)。
74.Philosophers have been much perplexed about the origin of forms, entelechies, or souls; but nowadays it has become known, through careful studies of plants, insects, and animals, that the organic bodies of nature are never products of chaos or putrefaction, but always come from seeds, in which there was undoubtedly some preformation; and it is held that not only the organic body was already there before conception, but also a soul in this body, and, in short, the animal itself; and that by means of conception this animal has merely been prepared for the great transformation involved in its becoming an animal of another kind. Something like this is indeed seen apart from birth [generation], as when worms become flies and caterpillars become butterflies. (Theod. Pref.86,89, 90, 187, 188, 397,403.)
哲學家們曾對形式、隱得來希或靈魂的起源大惑不解;但現在人們通過對植物、昆蟲和動物的仔細考察已經知道,自然界的有機形體絕非混沌或腐化的產物,而總是源於精子,在其中無疑存在著某種預成(preformation);經認定,不僅有機形體在受孕之前已經在那里,而且有靈魂在形體中,總之,動物自身已經存在了;通過受孕,這一動物僅僅是為巨大的變形作准備,以成為另一種動物。人們還可在在生殖之外看到類似的事情,例如蠕蟲變成蒼蠅,毛蟲化為蝴蝶。(參見《神正論》前言,第86節, 第89節,第90節, 第187節,第188節,第397節,第403節)
解釋:萊布尼茨用當時生物學中的「預成論」來為自己的生命體的連續性思想提供經驗的證明。與當時流行的生物的靈魂源於無機物(混沌或腐化)不同,「預成論」根據顯微鏡的觀察結果提出,生命體的成熟形態在精子階段就已經預先形成了,只不過被縮小了很多倍。
75.The animals, of which some are raised by means of conception to the rank of larger animals, may be called spermatic, but those among them which are not so raised but remain in their own kind (that is, the majority) are born, multiply, and are destroyed like the large animals, and it is only a few chosen ones [elus] that pass to a greater theatre.
這些動物,其中的一些通過受孕而上升到大動物之列,被稱為精子動物,但它們中的那些沒有上升而仍保持原樣的(即絕大多數)像大動物一樣誕生、繁衍和死亡,只有少數被選中的才走上一個更大的舞台。
76.But this is only half of the truth, and accordingly I hold that if an animal never comes into being by natural means
77. Thus it may be said that not only the soul (mirror of an indestructible universe) is indestructible, but also the animal itself, though its mechanism [machine] may often perish in part and take off or put on an organic slough [des depouilles organiques].
由此可知,不僅靈魂(不可毀滅的宇宙的一面鏡子)是不可毀滅的,動物自身也是如此,盡管它的機體常常部分消亡,並脫去或獲得有機的外殼。
第九部分 身心關係 (第78節—第81節)
May 14, 2025
Host Studio
第八節·複合實體(生命體)的變化(第71節──第77節)
71.But it must not be imagined, as has been done by some who have misunderstood my thought, that each soul has a quantity or portion of matter belonging exclusively to itself or attached to it for ever, and that it consequently owns other inferior living beings, which are devoted for ever to its service. For all bodies are in a perpetual flux like rivers, and parts are entering into them and passing out of them continually.
但不能像某些誤解我思想的人那樣去設想,每一靈魂都擁有專屬於它自己,或永遠附著於它的一塊或一份物質,並且它就因此而擁有了永遠服務於它的其他低級生物。因為一切形體都處於像河流一樣的永恆變遷之中,不斷地有些部分進入和離開它們。
解釋:由於與靈魂的密切關係,形體雖然具有了某種統一性,但這種統一性是不純粹的,不可能像單子那樣具有不受外界影響的絕對的獨立性和自足性。在與外界的直接的相互作用中,形體不斷地與外界進行著物質交換。
72. Thus the soul changes its body only by degrees, little by little, so that it is never all at once deprived of all its organs; and there is often metamorphosis in animals, but never metempsychosis or transmigration of souls; nor are there souls entirely separate [from bodies] nor unembodied spirits [genies sans corps]. God alone is completely without body. (Theod. 90, 124.)
因而,靈魂只是逐漸地、一點點地改變其形體,從而決不會突然失去其所有器官;在動物中只有形態的改變,而絕沒有輪回或靈魂的遷移;也不存在完全脫離形體的靈魂或無形體的精神。只有上帝才完全沒有形體。(參見《神正論》第90節, 第124節)
May 14, 2025
Host Studio
66.Whence it appears that in the smallest particle of matter there is a world of creatures, living beings, animals, entelechies, souls.
由此可知,在物質的最小的微粒中也有一個生物--有機體、動物、隱得來希和靈魂--的世界。①
解釋:這兩節進一步說明了生物形體的有機性。在這里整體與部分的統一性從形體與其部分擴展到形體與宇宙,從而形體的任一微小的部分都有一個生物的世界,而不僅僅是一個生物。
這兩節看上去似乎是泛指物質而言,即包括生物的形體也包括無機物。但這樣解釋的話邏輯上會遇到困難,因為無機物的部分和整體之間雖然可以通過力學定律相影響,但不存在著有機的統一關係。
67. Each portion of matter may be conceived as like a garden full of plants and like a pond full of fishes. But each branch of every plant, each member(orga n)of every animal, each drop of its liquid parts is also some such garden or pond.
物質的每一部分都可被視為是一個長滿植物的花園,或一個充滿著魚的池塘。而植物的每一枝條、動物的每一肢體以及它的體液的每一滴,都也是這樣的花園或池塘。
68. And though the earth and the air which are between the plants of the garden, or the water which is between the fish of the pond, be neither plant nor fish; yet they also contain plants and fishes, but mostly so minute as to be imperceptible to us.
盡管花園中的植物之間的土壤和空氣,或者池塘里的魚之間的水,不是植物或魚,但它們也包含了植物和魚,只是通常極為細微而不為我們所覺察。
解釋:在萊布尼茨看來,土壤、空氣、水雖然自身並不是有生命的有機體,但卻包含了無數微小的生物,當時剛發現不久的顯微鏡被萊布尼茨視為對他的理論提供了很好的說明。這樣一來,整個世界就都充滿了生命,沒有一個地方不具有有機性。
從另一個角度看,按照萊布尼茨的理論,既然現實世界是所有可能世界中最完滿的,而且生命體比無機物具有更高的完滿性,那麼上帝就沒有理由不使整個自然界都具有有機性。
69. Thus there is nothing fallow, nothing sterile, nothing dead in the universe, no chaos, no confusion save in appearance, somewhat as it might appear to be in a pond at a distance, in which one would see a confused movement and, as it were, a swarming of fish in the pond, without separately distinguishing the fish themselves. (Theod. Pref. [E. 475 b; 477 b; G. vi. 40, 44].)
因而,在宇宙中沒有任何荒蕪的、貧瘠的或死亡的東西,沒有任何混沌和混亂,除了表面現象之外。有些像遠處的池塘所顯現的那樣,人們只能遠遠看到魚的群集和混亂的運動,而不能看清魚本身。(參見《神正論》,前言,[E. 475 b; 477 b; G. vi. 40, 44])
解釋:在承認世界的有機性的同時,萊布尼茨並未否定世界的機械性,只是認為機械性是現象性的,世界的本質則在於有機性。
70. Hence it appears that each living body has a dominant entelechy, which in an animal is the soul; but the members of this living body are full of other living beings, plants, animals, each of which has also its dominant entelechy or soul.
由此可知,每一個活的形體都有一個主導性的隱得來希,在動物中則是靈魂;但這一活的形體的肢體中充滿了別的生物、植物、動物,它們中的每一個又有自己的主導性的隱得來希或靈魂。
解釋:值得注意的是,萊布尼茨雖然認為真正的個體是精神性的單子,但現實的個體(除了上帝之外)卻總是複合性的,是由單子與形體構成的生命體,萊布尼茨又稱此為複合實體(compound substance)。由於形體的無限可分性,在每一複合實體的內部都存在著無數的層面,每一層面都充滿了各種生命的小宇宙,是對大宇宙的映射。
萊布尼茨似乎沒有嚴格區別複合實體與複合物(compound),但兩者的所指應該有所不同。複合實體指形體與靈魂組成生命體,有著顯著的個體性和有機性;而複合物一般指有廣延的物質,盡管萊布尼茨最終認為一切物質都充滿了生命。
May 15, 2025
Host Studio
63.The body belonging to a Monad (which is its entelechy or its soul) constitutes along with the entelechy what may be called a living being, and along with the soul what is called an animal. Now this body of living being or of an animal is always organic; for, as every Monad is, in its own way, a mirror of the universe, and as the universe is ruled according to a perfect order, there must also be order in that which represents it, i.e. in the perceptions of the soul, and consequently there must be order in the body, through which the universe is represented in the soul. (Theod. 403.)
形體附屬於單子,而單子是其隱得來希或靈魂,形體和隱得來希一起構成了生物,和靈魂一起構成了動物。生物或動物的形體總是有機的,因為每一單子以自身的方式是宇宙的一面活的鏡子,而宇宙又為完美的秩序所統御,那麼在表象它的東西中,也就是靈魂的知覺中,必定也存在著秩序,從而在形體中,通過它宇宙被表象於靈魂,也存在著秩序。(參見《神正論》第403節)
解釋:單子的形體與普通的複合物(如一塊石頭)不同,形體是為單子所統一起來的,而石頭則是被力學定律所聚集在一起。單子之中包含了宇宙(無數單子所組成的系列)的完美秩序,當單子在賦予形體以統一性的時候,這種完美秩序也在某種程度上被賦予形體,從而形體具有了有機性,而不僅僅是量的聚集。
64.Thus the organic body of each living being is a kind of divine machine or natural automaton, which infinitely surpasses all artificial automata. For a machine made by the skill of man is not a machine in each of its parts. For instance, the tooth of a brass wheel has parts or fragments which for us are not artificial products, and which do not have the special characteristics of the machine, for they give no indication of the use for which the wheel was intended. But the machines of nature, namely, living bodies, are still machines in their smallest parts ad infinitum. It is this that constitutes the difference between nature and art, that is to say, between the divine art and ours. (Theod. 134, 146, 194, 403.)
因而,每一生物的有機形體都是一個神聖的機器,或一台無限地優越於任何人造的自動機器的自然的自動機器。因為人的技藝所制造的機器的每一部分並非機器。例如黃銅齒輪的齒的部分或斷片對我們而言就不再是人造物,它們不具有機器的特征,因為它們不能表現出齒輪的用途。而自然的機器,即有機體,在其無限小的部分仍是機器。這正是自然與技藝之間、也就是說神的技藝與我們的技藝之間的區別所在。(參見《神正論》第134節, 第146節,第194節, 第403節)
解釋:與早期近代哲學中把形體視為機器的機械論觀點不同,萊布尼茨認為生物的形體是神聖的機器即上帝造的機器,完全不同於人造的機器。在形體中,部分與整體互相關聯,以致無限小的部分仍表現出整個神聖機器的特性和功能。形體的這種有機的部分與整體的統一性來源於起在生物中主導作用的單子,因為單子是多中之一,在自身中容納了整個宇宙,當單子與形體結合時,就把這種有機性賦予了形體。
65.And the Author of nature has been able to employ this divine and infinitely wonderful power of art, because each portion of matter is not only infinitely divisible, as the ancients observed, but is also actually subdivided without end, each part into further parts, of which each has some motion of its own; otherwise it would be impossible for each portion of matter to express the whole universe. (Theod. Prelim., Disc. 70, and 195.)
自然的創造者能夠運用這一神聖的和無比神奇的技藝能力,因為物質的每一部分不僅是無限可分的,如古人所觀察的那樣,而且實際上可以無止境地再分割,每一部分都可分為更小的部分,而任一部分都有其自身的運動;否則,物質的每一部分就不可能反映整個宇宙了。(參見《神正論》,導論,第70節, 第195節)
May 29, 2025
Host Studio
61.And compounds are in this respect analogous with [symbolisent avec] simple substances. For all is a plenum and thus all matter is connected together and in the plenum every motion has an effect upon distant bodies in proportion to their distance, so that each body not only is affected by those which are in contact with it and in some way feels the effect of everything that happens to them, but also is mediately affected by bodies adjoining those with which it itself is in immediate contact. Wherefore it follows that this inter-communication of things extends to any distance, however great. And consequently every body feels the effect of all that takes place in the universe, so that he who sees all might read in each what is happening everywhere, and even what has happened or shall happen, observing in the present that which is far off as well in time as in place: sympnoia panta, as Hippocrates said. But a soul can read in itself only that which is there represented distinctly; it cannot all at once unroll everything that is enfolded in it, for its complexity is infinite.
複合物在這一方面類似於單純實體。既然一切都是充實的,所有的物體就都相互聯系在一起,在充實之中,每一運動對於遙遠的物體都能產生與其距離相對應的影響,因而每一物體不僅受與它相接觸的物體影響,以某種方式感受到發生在他們身上的一切事情,而且受與它直接接觸的物體相鄰近之物的間接影響。由此可知,這種事物間的相互交往延伸到無限遙遠的距離。因為,每一物體都能感受到所有發生在宇宙中的事情的效果,從而,洞察一切的人能在每一事物中看到各處所發生的事,甚至那些已經發生的或將要發生的,能在當下看到那些時間上和空間上甚為遙遠的事情。正如希波克拉底①所說的,sympnoia panta(萬物相通)。但靈魂在自身中只能看到那些被清晰表象的東西;而不能立刻打開封藏在自身中的所有東西,因為其繁復性是無窮的。
① 希波克拉底 ,約公元前 460460460-約公元前 約公元前 370, 370, 370, 370, 370, 古希臘 名醫, 被稱為醫藥之父 。
解釋:由這一節起,萊布尼茨開始集中談論有形體、廣延的自然界。在自然界中萬事萬物是互相聯系、互相影響的,因為自然是一個充實,沒有虛空的隔離,一個事物的運動、變化必通過力學定律傳導到所有地方。這種現象界的普遍聯系與本體界的單子之間的普遍聯系是非常不同的:前者是通過力學定律的外部影響,後者則是基於每個單子內部都包含了與所有其他單子的關係。
既然宇宙在本質上是無數的精神性的單子,那麼有廣延的自然界從何而來呢?這恐怕是萊布尼茨哲學中最困難的問題之一。《單子論》第二節中說「複合物只是單純物的集合或堆積」,這顯然不能從字面上去理解,因為無廣延的單子無論如何堆積也堆不出有廣延的物質。筆者認為,可通過萊布尼茨的表象理論或知覺理論對物質世界的形成作出較合理的解釋。如前所說,每個單子都表象著或知覺著所有的單子,由於單子知覺的有限性和含混性,在其知覺或表象中就不可避免地存在著某種扭曲和變形,這樣一來,原本無廣延的單子世界就被表象為或構造成有廣延的物質世界了。這種表象出物質世界的混亂的知覺應該處於無意識的層面,這樣,物質世界就獨立於人和動物的意識而獲得其自在性,是「有著良好基礎的現象」(well-founded phenomena)。
這種表象理論的解釋還可以為萊布尼茨的物質是單子的堆積的說法提供某種說明。既然物質世界是被無意識的混亂知覺所表象出的現象,其本質是無數的單子,在某種比喻的、不嚴格的意義上,我們可以說「物質是單子的堆積」。更貼切一些的比喻說法應該是「無數的單子被無意識的混亂知覺堆集成有廣延的物質世界」。
62. Thus, although each created Monad represents the whole universe, it represents more distinctly the body which specially pertains to it, and of which it is the entelechy; and as this body expresses the whole universe through the connexion of all matter in the plenum, the soul also represents the whole universe in representing this body, which belongs to it in a special way. (Theod. 400.)
盡管每一個被創造的單子都表象整個宇宙,但它表象特別屬於它的、以它為隱得來希的形體更為清晰;由於這一形體通過與在充實中的所有物體的聯系而反映整個宇宙,靈魂也通過表象這一以特別的方式屬於它的形體而表象整個宇宙。(參見《神正論》第400節)
解釋:從邏輯的角度來分析,單子的形態可分為三個階段,第一,單子最本源的形態是純精神的實體。第二,由於單子的無意識的知覺的混亂的表象作用,物質世界產生出來與單子相對。第三,為了更好地表象物質世界,單子通過與某些物質緊密聯系以具有軀體或形體,從而成為現實的個體或複合的實體。這三個階段只是邏輯意義上的,並不表示單子在時間中現實地經歷了三個階段。
Jun 3, 2025
Host Studio
58.And by this means there is obtained as great variety as possible, along with the greatest possible order; that is to say, it is the way to get as much perfection as possible. (Theod. 120, 124, 241, 214-243, 275.)
這就是獲得最大可能的多樣性同時又具有最大可能的秩序的方法;也就是說,它是獲得最大可能的完滿性的方法。(參見《神正論》第120節, 第124節,第241節, 第241-243節, 第275節)
解釋:「多樣性」與「秩序」是「完滿性」的不可或缺的兩個方面。僅有「多樣性」世界會一片混亂,僅有「秩序」世界會非常單調。在萊布尼茨看來,現實世界只有同時具有最大可能的「多樣性」與「秩序」,才是最完滿的,才能顯示出作為建築師的上帝的無比偉大。
59.Besides, no hypothesis but this (which I venture to call proved) fittingly exalts the greatness of God; and this Monsieur Bayle recognized when, in his Dictionary (article Rorarius), he raised objections to it, in which indeed he was inclined to think that I was attributing too much to God—more than it is possible to attribute. But he was unable to give any reason which could show the impossibility of this universal harmony, according to which every substance exactly expresses all others through the relations it has with them.
此外,唯有這一假設(我冒昧地認為它已獲得證明)才能恰當地贊美上帝的偉大;貝爾先生在他的辭典(「羅拉留」辭條)中提出反對意見時意識到了這一點,實際上他傾向於認為,我歸於上帝的太多了——超過了可能被歸於的。但他找不出任何理由來反對這種普遍的和諧,據此每一單子都通過它所具有的與所有其他單子的關係來確切地反映它們。
60.Further, in what I have just said there may be seen the reasons a priori why things could not be otherwise than they are. For God in regulating the whole has had regard to each part, and in particular to each Monad, whose nature being to represent, nothing can confine it to the representing of only one part of things; though it is true that this representation is merely confused as regards the variety of particular things [le detail] in the whole universe, and can be distinct only as regards a small part of things, namely, those which are either nearest or greatest in relation to each of the Monads; otherwise each Monad would be a deity. It is not as regards their object, but as regards the different ways in which they have knowledge of their object, that the Monads are limited. In a confused way they all strive after the infinite, the whole; but they are limited and differentiated through the degrees of their distinct perceptions.
進而,在我剛才所說的話中,可找到為什麼事物不可能是其他情形的先天理由。因為在上帝規定整體的時候必須考慮到部分,尤其是要考慮到每一單子。單子的本質既然在於表象,那就沒什麼能限制它只表象一部分事物;盡管這種表象在相關於整個宇宙的繁多的特殊事物時確實是混亂的,而只在相關於很小的一部分事物時是清晰的,即那些與它最接近或關係最大的事物;否則單子就會是神了。單子之受限制,不在於單子的對象,而在於認識對象的方式。他們都以混亂的方式追求著無限和全體;但他們因自身的知覺的清晰程度而受限制和相區別。
解釋:值得注意的是,由於單子沒有可供外物出入的窗戶,嚴格地說,單子並不表象外物。但由於小宇宙與大宇宙之間的和諧一致,單子之表現自身也就是在表象宇宙了。由於單子的有限性,它對宇宙的表象必然是存在著不同程度的混亂,只有上帝才能完全清晰地表象宇宙。
第七部分 有機的自然觀 (第61節-第70節)
Jun 5, 2025
Host Studio
52.Accordingly, among created things, activities and passivities are mutual. For God, comparing two simple substances, finds in each reasons which oblige Him to adapt the other to it, and consequently what is active in certain respects is passive from another point of view; active in so far as what we distinctly know in it serves to explain [rendre raison de] what takes place in another, and passive in so far as the explanation [raison] of what takes place in it is to be found in that which is distinctly known in another. (Theod. 66.)
因而,在創造物中能動與被動是相互的。當上帝比較兩個單純實體時,在每一個中都發現迫使他使另一個適應於它的理由,因而從一個角度看是主動的東西,從另一角度看則是被動的;它是主動的,是就我們在其中清晰地知道能夠解釋在另一實體中所發生的事而言,說它是被動的,是就在其中所發生的事的解釋須在我們於另一實體中所清晰地知道的東西中尋求而言。(參見《神正論》第66節)
53. Now, as in the Ideas of God there is an infinite number of possible universes, and as only one of them can be actual, there must be a sufficient reason for the choice of God, which leads Him to decide upon one rather than another. (Theod. 8, 10, 44, 173, 196-199,225, 414-416.)
既然在上帝的觀念中具有無限多的可能世界,而只有其中之一才能成為現實的,那麼上帝的選擇就必須有一個充足理由,以使他選擇這一個而不是另一個。(參見《神正論》第8節,第10節,第44節,第173節,第196-199節,第225節,第414-416節)
54. And this reason can be found only in the fitness [convenance], or in the degrees of perfection, that these worlds possess, since each possible thing has the right to aspire to existence in proportion to the amount of perfection it contains in germ. (Theod. 74, 130,167, 201, 345-347,350,352,354.)
這一理由只能在這些世界所擁有的合適性或完滿性的程度中尋找,因為每一可能事物都有權要求與它所擁有的完滿性的多少相適應的存在。(參見《神正論》第74節,第130節,第167節,第201節,第345-347節,第350節,第352節,第345節)
55. Thus the actual existence of the best that wisdom makes known to God is due to this, that His goodness makes Him choose it, and His power makes Him produce it. (Theod. 8, 78, 80, 84, 119, 204, 206, 208. Abrege, Object. 1 and 8.)
也正因此,智慧使上帝認識到最佳者的實際存在,上帝的善使他選擇它,上帝的力量則使他產生它。(參見《神正論》第8節, 第78節, 第80節, 第84節, 第119節,第204節,第206節,第208節;節略,異議1,異議8)
56. Now this connexion or adaptation of all created things to each and of each to all, means that each simple substance has relations which express all the others, and, consequently, that it is a perpetual living mirror of the universe. (Theod. 130, 360.)
這種所有創造物與每一創造物的聯系或適應,以及每一創造物對所有創造物的聯系和適應,意味著每一單純實體都具有表現所有其他單子的關係,因而,它是宇宙的一面永恆的活的鏡子。(參見《神正論》第130節, 第360節)
解釋:單子「是宇宙的一面永恆的活的鏡子」並不是說單子實際上表象著宇宙,而是說一個單子的與其他單子的和諧性,使其自身內部包含有所有與其他單子的關係,就好像在表象整個宇宙似的。也就是說,由於單子沒有窗戶,它只能表現自身。但由於單子包含了整個宇宙的關係,它自身就是個無比深邃的小宇宙,所以單子之表現自身也就是像在表象著宇宙。
57. And as the same town, looked at from various sides, appears quite different and becomes as it were numerous in aspects [perspectivement]; even so, as a result of the infinite number of simple substances, it is as if there were so many different universes, which, nevertheless are nothing but aspects [perspectives] of a single universe, according to the special point of view of each Monad. (Theod. 147.)
正如同一城市從不同角度去看,會顯得非常不同,好像因視角的不同而變成了許多城市;同理,由於有著無數多的單純實體,就好像有無數不同的宇宙,而這不過是從每一單子的獨特視角來觀看同一宇宙所產生的不同景觀。(參見《神正論》第147節)
Jun 8, 2025
Host Studio
因而只有上帝才是最高的統一或原初的單純實體,所有的被創造的或派生的單子都是其產物,也就是說,通過上帝的一剎那一剎那的連續閃耀而產生,為創造物的接受性所限制,按其本質而言創造物是有限的。(參見《神正論》第382-391節,第398節,第395節)
① 波瓦雷(Pierre Poiret),1646-1719,法國加爾文教牧師,定居於德國。他開始是笛卡爾主義者,後來受雅各·波墨影響成為宗教神秘主義者。譯者注17
解釋:新柏拉圖主義者喜歡用太陽散發出光芒來比喻神與萬物之間的關係,受此影響,萊布尼茨用閃電的連續閃耀來比喻上帝與萬物的關係。但萊布尼茨的「連續閃耀」很容易被誤解成笛卡爾的「連續創造」(continual creation)理論:即上帝在每一剎那都在重新創造萬事萬物。萊布尼茨此處的表述不夠嚴謹,實際上他的意思是指,上帝在創造萬物之後,仍然不斷地支撐或維系著萬物的存在,就像閃電不但產生了光亮,還通過其連續閃耀而維持光亮的存在。因為按照萊布尼茨的理論,上帝在創世之後就任憑事物按照他在創世之初所賦予的原則獨立活動,而不再另行干預了。笛卡爾的那種上帝不斷創造世界、不斷干預世界的理論在萊布尼茨看來無疑於把上帝視為一個糟糕的鐘表匠,要通過不斷地調自己制造出來的鐘表才能使時間走凖。
為什麼事物在被創造之後還需要上帝來維持其存在呢?我想萊布尼茨會這麼回答:觀念或本質是不包含存在的,存在完全是上帝的意志的賜予,如果上帝不以某種方式維持事物的存在,那麼他們就會喪失其現實存在而返回到可能世界之中。
48.In God there is Power, which is the source of all, also Knowledge, whose content is the variety of the ideas, and finally Will, which makes changes or products according to the principle of the best. (Theod. 7, 149, 150.) These characteristics correspond to what in the created Monads forms the ground or basis, to the faculty of Perception and to the faculty of Appetition. But in God these attributes are absolutely infinite or perfect; and in the created Monads or the Entelechies (or perfectihabiae, as Hermolaus Barbarus translated the word) there are only imitations of these attributes, according to the degree of perfection of the Monad. (Theod. 87.)
在上帝中有力量,它是萬物的源泉,還有知識,其內容是觀念的細節,最後還有意志,它根據最佳者原則來改變或產生事物。(參見《神正論》第7節,第149節,第150節)這些特性相應於被創造的單子中的構成其主體或基礎 ①的東西、知覺能力和欲求能力。但在上帝中這些屬性是絕對無限或完滿的;而在被創造的單子或隱得來希(或「具有完滿性者」,如赫莫勞斯·巴勃魯斯 ②所譯)中所存在的,只是根據單子的完滿性程度,對這些屬性的模仿。(參見《神正論》第87節)
第六部分 單子間的關係(第49節—第60節)
49. A created thing is said to act outwardly in so far as it has perfection, and to suffer [or be passive, patir] in relation to another, in so far as it is imperfect. Thus activity [action] is attributed to a Monad, in so far as it has distinct perceptions, and passivity [passion] in so far as its perceptions are confused. (Theod. 32, 66, 386.)
就創造物具有完善性而言,它被認為是向外作用,就其是不完善的而言,它與他物的關係是承受性的或消極的。因而,就單子具有清晰的知覺而言,它具有積極性(活動),就其知覺是混亂的而言,它具有消極性(情感)。(參見《神正論》第32節,第66節,第386節)
50. And one created thing is more perfect than another, in this, that there is found in the more perfect that which serves to explain a priori what takes place in the less perfect, and it is on this account that the former is said to act upon the latter.
一個創造物之所以比另一個更完滿在於,在更完滿之物中能找到可先驗地解釋發生在較不完滿之物中的事情的理由,也正因此,前者被認為是作用於後者。
51. But in simple substances the influence of one Monad upon another is only ideal, and it can have its effect only through the mediation of God, in so far as in the ideas of God any Monad rightly claims that God, in regulating the others from the beginning of things, should have regard to it. For since one created Monad cannot have any physical influence upon the inner being of another, it is only by this means that the one can be dependent upon the other. (Theod. 9, 54, 65, 66, 201. Abrege, Object. 3.)
但在單純實體中,一個單子對另一單子的影響僅是觀念性的,只有通過上帝的中介才能發生效果,因為在上帝的觀念中,每一單子都有權要求,上帝在萬物之初規定其他單子的時候應該關注到它。既然一個被創造的單子不能對另一單子的內部存在具有任何物理的影響,那麼只有憑借這一方式一個單子才能依賴於另一單子。(參見《神正論》第9節, 第54節, 第65節, 第66節, 第201節;節略,異議3)
解釋:單子既然沒有可供外物出入的窗戶,單子間的相互作用就不可能是現實的,而只能是觀念性的:即每個單子都獨立的運動、變化,而彼此之間卻能夠保持一種協調性和一致性,顯得好像在相互作用似的。單子之間之所以能夠彼此協調,是由於上帝在創世之初的預先安排。在萊布尼茨看來,只有使一個單子與其它的所有單子保持和諧一致,才能使現實世界具有最高的完滿性和實在性。這就是他的「前定和諧」理論。
Jun 9, 2025
Host Studio
45.Thus God alone (or the necessary Being) has this prerogative that He must necessarily exist, if He is possible. And as nothing can interfere with the possibility of that which involves no limits, no negation and consequently no contradiction, this [His possibility] is sufficient of itself to make known the existence of God a priori. We have thus proved it, through the reality of eternal truths. But a little while ago we proved it also a posteriori, since there exist contingent beings, which can have their final or sufficient reason only in the necessary Being, which has the reason of its existence in itself.
因而只有上帝(或必然存在)才具有這一特權,即只要他是可能的就必然存在。既然什麼都不可能妨礙那不包含限制、否定,從而不包含矛盾的東西的可能性,這種可能性自身就足以先天地證明上帝的存在。我們曾通過永恆真理的實在性來證明上帝的存在(第43節)。而不久前我們也後天地對此進行了證明(第38節),因為存在著偶然的事物,它們的最後的或充足的理由只能在必然存在之中,而必然存在則在自身中有其存在的理由。
解釋:萊布尼茨在此提到了對上帝存在的三種證明,前兩種是先天的,即本體論證明和基於永恆真理的實在性的證明,第三種是後天的,即基於充足理由律的證明。
46. We must not, however, imagine, as some do, that eternal truths, being dependent on God, are arbitrary and depend on His will, as Descartes, and afterwards M. Poiret, appear to have held. That is true only of contingent truths, of which the principle is fitness [convenance] or choice of the best, whereas necessary truths depend solely on His understanding and are its inner object. (Theod. 180-184, 185, 335, 351, 380.)
我們不能像有些人,如笛卡爾和後來的波瓦雷①那樣,認為永恆的真理既然依賴於上帝,就是偶然的,依賴於上帝的意志。這一觀點只是對於偶然真理而言是真實的,偶然真理的原則是合適性或對最佳者的選擇,而必然真理則僅僅依賴於上帝的理智,是上帝理智的內在目標。(參見《神正論》第180-184節,第185節,第335節,第351節,第380節)
解釋:在永恆真理(數學和邏輯真理)的性質上萊布尼茨與笛卡爾派有著激烈的爭論。在笛卡爾派的意志主義(voluntarism)觀點看來,永恆真理完全依賴於上帝的意志,只要上帝願意,2加2完全可以等於5。而萊布尼茨則認為,永恆真理僅僅是存在於上帝的理智之中,上帝對於永恆真理只能發現和認同,而不能創造和更改。萊布尼茨與笛卡爾派的這個爭論,實際上是中世紀神學中阿奎那與鄧·司哥特(Duns Scotus)的爭論的繼續。在這一點上,萊布尼茨與阿奎那的觀點是一致的。
萊布尼茨認為,偶然的事實真理才依賴於上帝的意志,事實真理所相關的現實世界是上帝的意志根據最佳者原則從所有可能世界中挑選出來的最完滿者,並使其現實化。沒有上帝的意志,偶然真理就得不到說明。
Thus God alone is the primary unity or original simple substance, of which all created or derivative Monads are products and have their birth, so to speak, through continual fulgurations of the Divinity from moment to moment, limited by the receptivity of the created being, of whose essence it is to have limits. (Theod. 382-391, 398, 395.)
Jun 15, 2025
Host Studio
41.Whence it follows that God is absolutely perfect; for perfection is nothing but amount of positive reality, in the strict sense, leaving out of account the limits or bounds in things which are limited. And where there are no bounds, that is to say in God, perfection is absolutely infinite. (Theod. Pref.22, [E. 469 a; G. vi. 27].)
由此可知,上帝是絕對完滿的;因為嚴格意義上的完滿性正是指積極實在性之全部,而將有限之物的局限和限度排除在外。在沒有局限之處,即在上帝中,完滿性是絕對無限的。(參見《神正論》序言 第22節[E. 469 a; G. vi. 27].)
解釋:在萊布尼茨那里,上帝的絕對完滿性和無限性的一個重要表現是,上帝的知覺是徹底清晰的,因而上帝得以作為純粹的精神而存在。而其他的單子的知覺則有不同程度的混亂,必須與一個形體相伴隨,因為形體正是混亂的知覺的某種產物,是單子的有限性和被動性的重要表現。
42.It follows also that created beings derive their perfections from the influence of God, but that their imperfections come from their own nature, which is incapable of being without limits. For it is in this that they differ from God. An instance of this original imperfection of created beings may be seen in the natural inertia of bodies. (Theod. 20, 27-30, 153, 167, 377-378,380;Abridgmet,obj.5.)
過本體論證明從上 帝的本質得出上存在。還可得出,創造物的完滿性源於上帝的影響,而其不完滿性則源於自身的不能沒有局限的本性。正是在此它們與上帝區別開來。創造物的原初的不完滿性的例證可在其軀體的自然的惰性中發現。(參見《神正論》第20節, 第20節, 第27-30節, 第153節, 第167節, 第377-378節, 第380節;節略,異議5)
解釋:上帝的創世並未創造事物的本質,事物的本質永恆地存在於可能世界之中。上帝的創世是指上帝挑選出一些事物的本質使其現實化,以構成一個所有可能世界中的最佳世界。因而創造物的局限性源於自身的本質或概念。
43.It is farther true that in God there is not only the source of existences but also that of essences, in so far as they are real, that is to say, the source of what is real in the possible. For the understanding of God is the region of eternal truths or of the ideas on which they depend, and without Him there would be nothing real in the possibilities of things, and not only would there be nothing in existence, but nothing would even be possible. (Theod. 20.)
同樣真實的是,上帝不僅是存在的源泉,也是本質的源泉,就本質是真實的而言,也就是說,是可能性中真實的東西的源泉。因為上帝的理智是永恆的真理或觀念的依附之處,沒有上帝就沒有任何在可能性中真實之物,不僅沒有任何東西存在,甚至沒有任何東西是可能的。(參見《神正論》第20節)
解釋:本質或觀念只要符合矛盾律,即不包含自相矛盾的東西,就是真實的,也就是說具有某種實在性,這些真實的本質或觀念只能存在於上帝的理智之中。這構成了萊布尼茨的另一個對上帝存在的證明。
44.For if there is a reality in essences or possibilities, or rather in eternal truths, this reality must needs be founded in something existing and actual, and consequently in the existence of the necessary Being, in whom essence involves existence, or in whom to be possible is to be actual. (Theod. 184-189, 335.)
如果在本質或可能性中,或者在必然真理中存在著某種實在,那麼這一實在就必須奠基於某種存在和現實之物,也就是必然實體的存在上,這種必然實體的本質包含了存在,或者在其中可能的都是現實的。(參見《神正論》第184-189節,第335節)
Jun 24, 2025
Host Studio
Thus the final reason of things must be in a necessary substance, in which the variety of particular changes exists only eminently, as in its source; and this substance we call God. (Theod. 7.)
因而事物的最終理由必須存在於一個必然實體之中,在這一實體中,特殊變化的細節僅僅卓越地存在著,就像在其源頭一樣;我們將這一實體稱為上帝。(參見《神正論》第7節)
解釋:「卓越地」(eminently)與「形式地」(formally)相對應,為經院哲學術語,但在萊布尼茨時代仍很流行。甲「形式地」存在於乙中,是指甲物理地作為乙的一個部分而存在,如馬腿之於馬;而甲「卓越地」存在於乙中,不是就物理意義而是就解釋或邏輯意義而言,即乙是邏輯在先的,對甲的解釋要依賴於乙。
所謂「特殊變化的細節僅僅卓越地存在」於上帝之中,也就是說上帝是萬事萬物的充足理由。
39.Now as this substance is a sufficient reason of all this variety of particulars, which are also connected together throughout; there is only one God, and this God is sufficient.
這一實體是所有特殊事物的充足理由,而這些特殊事物是普遍相關聯的;只有一個上帝,而且這一上帝就足夠了。
解釋:由於上帝為世界提供了充足理由,而且上帝是其自身的充足理由,因而充足理由律的追問之鏈在上帝這里終結了,即只有一個上帝就足夠了。而如果存在多個上帝的話,又會引出一系列的「為什麼」,如每個上帝的特性是什麼,上帝之間的關係如何等等。在萊布尼茨看來,只有承認上帝的唯一性才能保證上帝是最終的充足理由。
40.We may also hold that this supreme substance, which is unique, universal and necessary, nothing outside of it being independent of it,—this substance, which is a pure sequence of possible being, must be illimitable and must contain as much reality as is possible.
我們還可得出,這一最高實體是唯一的、普遍的和必然的,沒有任何事物能在它之外而獨立於它,這一實體,作為可能存在的直接結果①,一定是沒有限制的,且包含盡可能多的實在。
解釋:「沒有任何事物能在它(上帝)之外而獨立於它」,這句話貌似斯賓諾莎的泛神論口吻,但萊布尼茨的意思並不是指萬物存在於上帝自身之中,而是指萬物處於超越的上帝的作用和統轄之中。可以用第38節中的經院哲學術語來解釋,即萬物卓越地而非形式地存在於上帝之中。
接下來,萊布尼茨按照安瑟爾謨的本體論證明的思路,從上帝的本質或觀念(可能存在)推出上帝必然存在。
Jun 30, 2025
Host Studio
35.In short, there are simple ideas, of which no definition can be given; there are also axioms and postulates, in a word, primary principles, which cannot be proved, and indeed have no need of proof; and these are identical propositions, whose opposite involves an express contradiction. (Theod. 36, 37, 44, 45, 49, 52, 121-122, 337, 340-344.)
最後,有一些不能給出定義的簡單觀念;還有一些公理和公設,即基本的原理,是不能證明的,也沒必要卻證明;這些是同一性的陳述,其反面包含著明顯的矛盾。(參見《神正論》第36節、第37節、第44節、第45節、第49節、第52節、第121-122節、第337節、第340-344節)
36.But there must also be a sufficient reason for contingent truths or truths of fact, that is to say, for the sequence or connexion of the things which are dispersed throughout the universe of created beings, in which the analyzing into particular reasons might go on into endless detail, because of the immense variety of things in nature and the infinite division of bodies. There is an infinity of present and past forms and motions which go to make up the efficient cause of my present writing; and there is an infinity of minute tendencies and dispositions of my soul, which go to make its final cause.
但充足理由也必須存在於偶然真理或事實真理,也就是說,存在於散布在創造物的世界中的事物的序列或聯系,在此,對特殊理由的分析可以進展到無窮的細節,因為自然界中的事物無比繁復以及物體可以無限分割。無數的現在和過去的狀態和運動構成了我當前寫作的動力因;而我靈魂中的無數的細微傾向和性情構成了它的目的因。
37.And as all this detail again involves other prior or more detailed contingent things, each of which still needs a similar analysis to yield its reason, we are no further forward;and the sufficient or final reason must be outside of the sequence or series of particular contingent things, however infinite this series may be.
由於所有這些細節又包含其他的在先的或更細微的偶然事物,而這些仍然需要同樣的分析來獲得其理由,這樣我們就不能再進一步了;充足的或最終的理由必須存在於特殊的偶然事物的序列之外,無論這一序列是如何無限。
解釋:作為事實真理的原則的充足理由律的內容很簡單,即沒有任何事物的存在或發生是沒有理由的,也就是說,對任何事情我們都可以追問「問什麼」。這一貌似空洞的原則至少有兩個重大的涵義:其一,它意味著世界有著自在的秩序,而且這種秩序在原則上能夠被理性所認識,這鮮明地表現出萊布尼茨哲學的理性主義色彩;其二,它被萊布尼茨用來引出對上帝存在的宇宙論證明,即由於事物之間的普遍聯系,對任一事物的充足理由的追朔都會延伸到整個世界,而世界作為整體的充足理由只能在世界之外,即超越的上帝。參見萊布尼茨《關於理性與神恩的基於理性的原則》第8節。
第五部分 上帝 (第38節—第46節)
Jul 3, 2025
Host Studio
32.And that of sufficient reason, in virtue of which we hold that there can be no fact real or existing, no statement true, unless there be a sufficient reason, why it should be so and not otherwise, although these reasons usually cannot be known by us. (Theod. 44, 196.)
其二為充足理由律,借助於這一原則,我們認為,除非有為什麼是這樣而不是那樣的充足理由,否則就沒有事實是真實的或存在的,沒有陳述是正確的,盡管這些理由常常不為我們所知。(參見《神正論》第44節,第196節)
33.There are also two kinds of truths, those of reasoning and those of fact. Truths of reasoning are necessary and their opposite is impossible; truths of fact are contingent and their opposite is possible. When a truth is necessary, its reason can be found by analysis, resolving it into more simple ideas and truths, until we come to those which are primary. (Theod. 170, 174, 189, 280-282, 367. Abrege, Object. 3.)
也存在著兩種真理,即推理的真理和事實的真理。推理的真理是必然的,其反面是不可能的;事實的真理是偶然的,其反面是可能的。當某個真理是必然的,其理由就可以通過分析而發現,可以將它分解為更簡單的觀念和真理,直到發現那些最基本的東西。(參見《神正論》第170節、第174節、第189節、第280-282節、第367節。節略,異議3)
解釋:萊布尼茨的理性的兩大原則矛盾律和充足理由律分別對應於兩種不同的真理,即推理的真理和事實的真理,或者必然的真理和偶然的真理。在他看來,推理的真理或必然真理指是指必然為真的同一性的陳述,即通過人的理性分析,可發現該陳述的謂詞包含語主詞之中。由此可知,與之相應的矛盾律的本質就在於a﹦a,因而萊布尼茨有時又將矛盾律稱為同一律(principle of identity)。他認為,邏輯學和數學就是建立在矛盾律或同一律的基礎上的,是相關於邏輯世界或可能世界的。
而事實的真理或偶然的真理則是相關於現實世界的陳述,並不必然為真,其反面總是可能的。例如,昨天雖然沒有下雨,但昨天也完全有可能下雨,這在邏輯上並不包含矛盾。也就是說,關於現實世界的陳述,至少就人的理性而言,不能視作謂詞包含於主詞之中的同一性陳述。那麼事實真理或偶然真理的真理性就不是源於矛盾律,而必須另有來源,即充足理由律。
34.It is thus that in Mathematics speculative Theorems and practical Canons are reduced by analysis to Definitions, Axioms and Postulates.
因而,在數學上思辨的原理和實踐的法則,可通過分析而歸結為定義、公理和公設。
Jul 5, 2025
Host Studio
28. In so far as the concatenation of their perceptions is due to the principle of memory alone, men act like the lower animals, resembling the empirical physicians, whose methods are those of mere practice without theory. Indeed, in three-fourths of our actions we are nothing but empirics. For instance, when we expect that there will be daylight to-morrow, we do so empirically, because it has always so happened until now. It is only the astronomer who thinks it on rational grounds.
就其知覺的連貫性僅在於記憶的原則而言,人的行為類似於動物,就象經驗主義的醫生,只有實踐而缺乏理論。實際上,我們在自身的四分之三的行為上都是經驗主義者。例如,當我們預期明天會有白晝的時候,我們只是憑經驗,因為直到目前事情一直是這樣的。只有天文學家才能以理性的根據對此進行思考。
解釋:作為理性主義者,萊布尼茨認為只有普遍性的理性知識才使人與動物區別開來,人的經驗與動物的聯想並沒有本質不同。
29. But it is the knowledge of necessary and eternal truths that distinguishes us from the mere animals and gives us Reason and the sciences, raising us to the knowledge of ourselves and of God. And it is this in us that is called the rational soul or mind [esprit].
但只有必然的、永恆的真理才將我們與單純的動物區分開來,給予我們理性和科學,將我們提升到具有關於我們自身和上帝的知識。這就是我們之內所謂的理性靈魂或心靈。
30. It is also through the knowledge of necessary truths, and through their abstract expression, that we rise to acts of reflexion, which make us think of what is called I, and observe that this or that is within us;and thus, thinking of ourselves, we think of being, of substance, of the simple and the compound, of the immaterial, and of God Himself, conceiving that what is limited in us is in Him without limits. And these acts of reflexion furnish the chief objects of our reasonings. (Theod. Pref. [E. 469; G. vi. 27].)
也正是憑借必然真理的知識以及它們的抽象表達,我們才提升到具有反思活動,這使我們能夠思維所謂「自我」,並觀察到這或那處於「我們」之中;就這樣,通過思維自我,我們也就思維到存在、實體,思維到單純物和複合物,以及非實在之物和上帝自身,並設想在我們身上有限的卻會在上帝之中沒有限制。這些反思的活動為我們(當前的形而上學)①的推理提供了主要對象。(參見《神正論》前言,[E. 469; G. vi. 27])
解釋:作為理性靈魂或心靈,憑借著對必然真理的理性知識的認識,而擁有了反思活動,具有了自我意識,並進而獲得了有關存在、實體、複合物、上帝等的哲學真理。值得注意的是,在萊布尼茨那里,自我意識與理性的反思能力緊密相連、密不可分,而對自我意識的反思則是形而上學的源泉。作為德國哲學之父,萊布尼茨的這種注重主體性的哲學傾向對德國古典哲學的發展有著非常深遠的影響。
第四部分 理性的兩大原則和兩種真理 (第31節—第37節)
31. Our reasonings are grounded upon two great principles, that of contradiction, in virtue of which we judge false that which involves a contradiction, and true that which is opposed or contradictory to the false; (Theod. 44, 169.)
我們的推理建立在兩大原則之上,其一為矛盾律,借助於這一原則,我們將包含矛盾者判斷為假,並將與假的相對立或相矛盾的判斷為真。(參見《神正論》第44節,第169節)
Jul 10, 2025
Host Studio
25.We see also that nature has given heightened perceptions to animals, from the care she has taken to provide them with organs, which collect numerous rays of light, or numerous undulations of the air, in order, by uniting them, to make them have greater effect. Something similar to this takes place in smell, in taste and in touch, and perhaps in a number of other senses, which are unknown to us. And I will explain presently how that which takes place in the soul represents what happens in the bodily organs.
我們也看到,大自然通過賦予動物以感覺器官而給與了它們強化的知覺,這些感覺器官把無數的光線和空氣的波動收集起來,通過把它們結合起來而使其具有更顯著的效果。同樣的事情也發生於嗅覺、味覺和觸覺,以及大概不為人所知的一些其他的感官。我不久將解釋,為何在靈魂中所發生的事能夠反映感官中所發生的事。
解釋:動物的單子(靈魂)因具有感覺器官而擁有了較清晰的、有意識的、有記憶的知覺。至於物質性的感官何以能夠與無形體的靈魂相溝通這一問題,萊布尼茨用他的「前定和諧」理論加以解釋。
26. Memory provides the soul with a kind of consecutiveness, which resembles [imite] reason, but which is to be distinguished from it. Thus we see that when animals have a perception of something which strikes them and of which they have formerly had a similar perception, they are led, by means of representation in their memory, to expect what was combined with the thing in this previous perception, and they come to have feelings similar to those they had on the former occasion. For instance, when a stick is shown to dogs, they remember the pain it has caused them, and howl and run away. (Theod. Preliminary Discourse, sec. 65.)
記憶為靈魂提供一種連貫性,這種連貫性雖類似於理性,卻有必要與理性區別開來。我們注意到,如果動物以前曾被某物毆打,當它們又見到此物時,記憶中的表象會驅使它們去期待在以往的知覺中與該物相連的東西,它們會產生與以前的情形中類似的感受。例如,當人向狗舉起棍子的時候,狗會記起棍子曾造成的痛苦,就嚎叫著跑開了。(參見《神正論》初步論述,第65節)
27. And the strength of the mental image which impresses and moves them comes either from the magnitude or the number of the preceding perceptions. For often a strong impression produces all at once the same effect as a long-formed habit, or as many and oft-repeated ordinary perceptions.
那些刺激並驅動它們的心理印象的力量源於以往知覺的強度或數量。因為一個強烈的印象常立即產生與長期形成的習慣或許多經常重復的普通知覺相同的效果。
解釋:記憶使得動物能夠將特定的知覺聯系在一起形成習慣性的聯想,從而使動物的行為具有某種一貫性。
Jul 21, 2025
Host Studio
21.And it does not follow that in this state the simple substance is without any perception. That, indeed, cannot be, for the reasons already given; for it cannot perish, and it cannot continue to exist without being affected in some way, and this affection is nothing but its perception. But when there is a great multitude of little perceptions, in which there is nothing distinct, one is stunned; as when one turns continuously round in the same way several times in succession, whence comes a giddiness which may make us swoon, and which keeps us from distinguishing anything. Death can for a time put animals into this condition.
這並不意味著,在這一狀態中單純實體沒有任何知覺。根據前面給出的理由這是不可能的;因為它不能在沒有某種性質也就是知覺的情況下停止存在或繼續存在。可是當一個人具有無數微小的知覺,其中卻無一清晰,這時他就昏迷了;就象朝某個方向連續轉圈若干次,會使我們頭暈目眩而昏厥,不能分辨任何東西。死亡能夠在某段時間內把動物置於這種狀態。
22.And as every present state of a simple substance is naturally a consequence of its preceding state, in such a way that its present is big with its future; (Theod. 350.)
既然單純實體的現在狀態是其前一狀態的自然結果,同樣地,它的現在就孕含了將來。(參見《神正論》第350節)
23.And as, on waking from stupor, we are conscious of our perceptions, we must have had perceptions immediately before we awoke, although we were not at all conscious of them; for one perception can in a natural way come only from another perception, as a motion can in a natural way come only from a motion. (Theod. 401-403.)
由於我們一從昏迷中覺醒過來就意識到知覺,我們在覺醒之前一定也具有知覺,盡管我們完全不能意識到它們;因為知覺只能以自然的方式源於另一(在先的)知覺,就象一個運動以自然的方式源於另一(在先的)運動①。(參見《神正論》第401-403節)
24.It thus appears that if we had in our perceptions nothing marked and, so to speak, striking and highly-flavoured, we should always be in a state of stupor. And this is the state in which the bare Monads are.
由此可知,如果我們知覺中沒有那些清晰的,也就是說,顯著的和極有特色的東西,我們就會永遠處於昏迷之中。而這正是赤裸的單子所處的狀態。
解釋:在第20-24節中,萊布尼茨認為人的無意識狀態與赤裸的單子是非常類似的,即都沒有任何清晰的知覺,從而說明赤裸的單子確實是存在的或至少其存在是可以設想的。萊布尼茨認為,無意識的知覺必然是存在的,否則單子就失去其恆存性而不成其為實體,人在昏迷或無夢的睡眠這些無意識狀態中就陷入死亡而無法蘇醒了。
Jul 23, 2025
Host Studio
17.Moreover, it must be confessed that perception and that which depends upon it are inexplicable on mechanical grounds, that is to say, by means of figures and motions. And supposing there were a machine, so constructed as to think, feel, and have perception, it might be conceived as increased in size, while keeping the same proportions, so that one might go into it as into a mill. That being so, we should, on examining its interior, find only parts which work one upon another, and never anything by which to explain a perception. Thus it is in a simple substance, and not in a compound or in a machine, that perception must be sought for. Further, nothing but this (namely, perceptions and their changes) can be found in a simple substance. It is also in this alone that all the internal activities of simple substances can consist. (Theod. Pref. [E. 474; G. vi. 37].)
此外,必須承認,知覺以及依賴於知覺的東西,不能用機械的原因來解釋,也就是說,不能用形狀和運動來解釋。假設有一架機器,被制作得能夠思想、感受和擁有知覺,想像它在保持同一比例的情況下在尺寸上被放大,以至於人們可以像走進磨坊一樣進入它。在這種情況下,在考察它的內部的時候,我們只能看到一些部分作用於另一部分,而決找不到任何能夠解釋知覺的東西。因此,只能在單純實體中而非在複合物或機器中尋找知覺。況且,在單純實體中能被找到的只有這個(即知覺及其變化)。單純實體的全部內在運動也僅在於此。(參見《神正論》序言,[E. 474; G. vi. 37])
解釋:萊布尼茨此處的例子是指能夠知覺的機器是不可能存在的,因為作為實體的特性的知覺是一種質的規定,不能用機械論的量的觀點來解釋。
18.All simple substances or created Monads might be called Entelechies, for they have in them a certain perfection (echousi to enteles); they have a certain self-sufficiency (autarkeia) which makes them the sources of their internal activities and, so to speak, incorporeal automata. (Theod. 87.)
所有的單純實體或被創造的單子都可被稱為隱得來希,因為它們自身之內都具有某種完滿性;他們具有某種自足性,使得他們成為自身內在活動的源泉,也就是說,無形體的自動機。(參見《神正論》,第87節)
解釋:「隱得來希」在希臘文中原義指「完滿」、「完整」,亞里斯多德用「隱得來希」一詞表示從潛能到現實的運動,萊布尼茨的「隱得來希」強調單子的圓滿性和自足性,更接近該詞的本義。
單子或「隱得來希」的圓滿性和自足性是有限的,要不然就和上帝沒有區別了。單子為上帝所創造並被賦予了運動的原則,因而每個單子都是自我運動的、自足的,不需要任何外界的影響。
第三部分 單子的等級 (第19節—第30節)
19.If we are to give the name of Soul to everything which has perceptions and desires [appetits] in the general sense which I have explained, then all simple substances or created Monads might be called souls; but as feeling [le sentiment] is something more than a bare perception, I think it right that the general name of Monads or Entelechies should suffice for simple substances which have perception only, and that the name of Souls should be given only to those in which perception is more distinct, and is accompanied by memory.
如果我們把靈魂一詞賦予具有我所解釋的一般意義的知覺和欲求的所有事物,那麼所有的單純實體或被創造的單子都可被稱作靈魂;但因為感受包含了比赤裸的知覺更多的東西,所以我同意單子或隱得來希這種一般的名稱對於僅僅具有知覺的單子而言是足夠的,靈魂這一名稱應該被給與那些具有更清晰的知覺、有記憶相伴隨的單子。
解釋:萊布尼茨按知覺的清晰程度把單子分成三個等級:最低級的是赤裸的單子,只具有最含混的無意識的知覺;其次是靈魂(soul),具有有意識的知覺即感受,有記憶相伴隨;再次是心靈(mind)或精神(spirit),其知覺具有自我意識和理性。
20.For we experience in ourselves a condition in which we remember nothing and have no distinguishable perception; as when we fall into a swoon or when we are overcome with a profound dreamless sleep. In this state the soul does not perceptibly differ from a bare Monad; but as this state is not lasting, and the soul comes out of it, the soul is something more than a bare Monad. (Theod. 64.)
我們在自己身上體驗到一種情形,即我們對之沒有任何記憶且沒有任何可辨識的知覺;如我們陷入昏迷或深沉的無夢的睡眠的時候。在這種狀態下靈魂與赤裸的單子之間沒有可覺察的區別;但由於這一狀態是不持久的,靈魂會從中擺脫出來,靈魂是某種比赤裸的單子更豐富的東西。(參見《神正論》第64節)
Jul 25, 2025
Host Studio
14.The passing condition, which involves and represents a multiplicity in the unit [unite] or in the simple substance, is nothing but what is called Perception, which is to be distinguished from Apperception or Consciousness, as will afterwards appear. In this matter the Cartesian view is extremely defective, for it treats as non-existent those perceptions of which we are not consciously aware. This has also led them to believe that minds [esprits] alone are Monads, and that there are no souls of animals nor other Entelechies. Thus, like the crowd, they have failed to distinguish between a prolonged unconsciousness and absolute death, which has made them fall again into the Scholastic prejudice of souls entirely separate [from bodies], and has even confirmed ill-balanced minds in the opinion that souls are mortal.
這一在單元或單純實體中包涵並表現多樣性的暫時狀態正是所謂知覺,如下所說,知覺應該與統覺或意識區別開來。在這一點上笛卡爾派的觀點極其錯誤,因為他們把人們意識覺察不到的知覺視為是不存在。這也使他們認為只有心靈才是單子,而不存在動物的靈魂或其他的隱得來希。因而,他們像平常人一樣,不能把長期的無意識與嚴格的死亡區分開來,這使他們再次陷入經院哲學的偏見,使靈魂完全脫離軀體,甚至贊成那些心智不健全的人所持的靈魂有死的觀點。
解釋:萊布尼茨將作為精神實體的單子的一中之多的狀態稱為知覺。值得重視的是,當萊布尼茨把單子定義為精神時,他大大地拓展了精神的范圍:知覺不能等同於有意識的知覺,還應該包括整個無意識領域;精神不能等同於人的心靈,還應該包括「動物的靈魂或其他的隱得來希」。這樣一來,精神的疆界變得無比寬廣,從而得以真正成為世界的本體。
在此,萊布尼茨批判了笛卡爾派的否認「人們意識覺察不到的知覺」的存在、將精神等同於人的有意識的心靈的狹隘見解,認為這會將長期的無意識和嚴格的死亡混為一談。在萊布尼茨看來,軀體是無意識的知覺的某種產物,與被創造的單子不可分離,而否認無意識的知覺,必然會導致「靈魂完全脫離軀體」的錯誤見解。笛卡爾派的狹隘的心靈觀甚至會導向懷疑靈魂的永恆性,因為只有承認無意識的知覺,才能保證精神的持續不斷的存在。
15,The activity of the internal principle which produces change or passage from one perception to another may be called Appetition. It is true that desire [l'appetit] cannot always fully attain to the whole perception at which it aims, but it always obtains some of it and attains to new perceptions.
那種產生變化或從一個知覺向另一個知覺的過渡的內在原則的活動被稱作欲求。誠然,欲求不能完全達到它所指向的全部知覺,但他們總會有所收獲並達到新的知覺。
解釋:知覺和欲求是單子的兩個緊密聯系的根本規定。每個被創造的單子都以上帝的全知、全能和全善為其最終欲求目的,但這是不可能徹底達到的,因而每個單子都表現為永不停息的追求和運動。
16. We have in ourselves experience of a multiplicity in simple substance, when we find that the least thought of which we are conscious involves variety in its object. Thus all those who admit that the soul is a simple substance should admit this multiplicity in the Monad; and M. Bayle ought not to have found any difficulty in this, as he has done in his Dictionary, article 『Rorarius.』
當我們在我們所意識到的最細微的念頭中也能發現它包含著一些不同的對象時,我們就在自身體驗到了單純實體中的多樣性。因而所有那些承認靈魂是單純實體的人也應該承認單子中的這種多樣性;貝爾先生也不應該在此發現困難,如他在他的辭典「羅拉留」辭條中所做的那樣。
解釋:在此萊布尼茨以人的意識活動為例,再次論證單子的「一中之多」的特性:人的意識活動本身是「一」,意識活動總是有多樣性的內容則是「多」。
皮埃爾·貝(1647 –1706) ,是法國主張懷疑論的新教神學家在其《歷史與批判詞典》的 「羅拉留」(1485-1556,主張動物有理性)辭條中,以人的理性的軟弱無力這一懷疑主義思想批判了萊布尼茨的理性神學觀點。
Jul 26, 2025
Host Studio
10.I assume also as admitted that every created being, and consequently the created Monad, is subject to change, and further that this change is continuous in each.
我還認為以下觀點是理所當然的,即每一創造物,因而每一被創造的單子都是變化著的,而且這一變化在每一事物中都是持續不斷的。
11.It follows from what has just been said, that the natural changes of the Monads come from an internal principle, since an external cause can have no influence upon their inner being. (Theod. 396, 400.)
由前可知,單子的自然變化源於一個內在的原則,因為外在的原因不能對它們的內部產生影響。(參見《神正論》第396節、第400節)
解釋:在早期近代哲學中,萊布尼茨以其動態的實體觀而獨樹一幟,在他看來,單子處於永恆運動之中,且這種運動源於自身。這對當時由於機械力學的影響而在哲學界流行的靜態的實體觀而言是一個有力的批判。
12.But, besides the principle of the change, there must be a particular series of changes [un detail de ce qui change], which constitutes, so to speak, the specific nature and variety of the simple substances.
但是,除了變化的原則之外,還必須有一個變化的特殊系列,它構成了單純實體的特殊性和不同性。
13.This particular series of changes should involve a multiplicity in the unit [unite] or in that which is simple. For, as every natural change takes place gradually, something changes and something remains unchanged; and consequently a simple substance must be affected and related in many ways, although it has no parts.
這一變化的特殊系列應該在單元或單純物中包涵多樣性。因為,每一自然的變化都是逐漸發生的,有些東西變化了,而另一些東西沒有變;從而,單純實體盡管沒有部分,它必須具有很多性質和關係。
解釋:所謂「變化的特殊系列」是指單子運動的整個過程。對萊布尼茨而言,單子既是「一」又是「多」。單子的「一」是指單子的沒有量的規定的單純性,單子的「多」一般指它必須具有若干的性質。值得注意的是,當萊布尼茨從「變化的特殊系列」來談單子的「多」時,意義比較獨特,側重於動態的、系統的角度。
Aug 2, 2025
Host Studio
8.Yet the Monads must have some qualities, otherwise they would not even be existing things. And if simple substances did not differ in quality, there would be absolutely no means of perceiving any change in things. For what is in the compound can come only from the simple elements it contains, and the Monads, if they had no qualities, would be indistinguishable from one another, since they do not differ in quantity. Consequently, space being a plenum, each part of space would always receive, in any motion, exactly the equivalent of what it already had, and no one state of things would be discernible from another.
然而,單子必須具有一些性質,否則它們就甚至不是存在物了。而且,如果單純實體不在性質上相區別,就根本沒有辦法來覺察事物的變化。因為存在於複合物中的東西,只能源於它所包含的簡單要素。而單子如果不在性質上有所不同的話,就不可能把它們區別開來,因為它們不能在量上相不同。因此,空間作為「充實」,在任何一個運動中,空間的每一部分只是接受它已具有的運動的等價物,事物的任何一種狀態都不能與其它狀態相區別了。
解釋:萊布尼茨首先確定單子必須具有一些性質,其次,單子的性質必須彼此不同,否則,經驗世界的變化和多樣性就不能得到說明,因為作為現象的複合物最終是由單純物的單子所決定的。與當時流行的自然哲學不同,萊布尼茨否認虛空的存在,並認為,如果單子之間沒有質的差別,那麼現象世界作為充滿同質物體的充實的空間,就不會有任何變化和區別了。
9.Indeed, each Monad must be different from every other. For in nature there are never two beings which are perfectly alike and in which it is not possible to find an internal difference, or at least a difference founded upon an intrinsic quality [denomination].
確實,每一單子都必須與其它單子相區別。因為在自然中決不會有兩個東西完全一樣,以至於在它們身上找不到內在的差異,或至少是建立在內在性質上的差異。
① 「感性形式」(sensible species):根據亞里斯多德的認識論,當感官受外物刺激時會形成「感性形式」,這種「感性形式」是對外界事物的反映和表象。阿奎那等經院哲學家接受了亞里斯多德」是對外界事物的反映和表象。亞里斯多德的這種理論。譯者注4
解釋:這就是萊布尼茨著名的「不可辨別者的同一性原則」(The principle of the identity of indiscernibles.)。
第二部分 單子的變化 (第10節——第18節)
Aug 13, 2025
Host Studio
6.Thus it may be said that a Monad can only come into being or come to an end all at once; that is to say, it can come into being only by creation and come to an end only by annihilation, while that which is compound comes into being or comes to an end by parts.
原譯:因而可以說,單子只能突然地產生或消亡;也就是說,它只能通過創造而產生,通過毀滅而消亡,而複合物則部分地產生或消亡。
原譯文將「it can come into being only by creation and come to an end only by annihilation」譯作「它只能通過創造而產生,通過毀滅而消亡」。我以為似乎不妥,提出以供探討:
首先,「come into being」原譯文譯作「產生」似有不妥。學界對作為西方哲學中核心概念的「be」應怎麼對譯,已有太多爭論,或譯作「存在」,或譯作「萬有」,甚至直接譯作「是」,但不管如何,至少可知這個詞不僅僅指代發生學意義上的「產生」。若回溯至亞里士多德,「be」一詞當指「一物之為一物」的原則性理據,故而我以為將「come into being」譯作「成其所是」更為恰當。
其次,「creation」和「annihilation」都是帶有濃厚宗教色彩的詞匯,而原譯文似乎忽視了這一點,只平淡無奇地將之地譯作「創造」和「毀滅」。「create」本意應是指「神創」,同詞源的「creationism」和「creationist」分別指「神創論」和「神創論者」即是一證,現代英語中用「create」表示通常意義上的「創造」應是一種派生或者說引申的用法(即人對神的模仿),故「creature」一詞嚴格說來也應該譯作「造物」而非自然科學意義上的「生物」。至於「annihilation」一詞,電子詞典將之譯為「大毀滅」、「大災難」,但這分明不是一個常用詞,如果我沒有記錯,《聖經》中是用這個詞指稱末日審判時的世界毀滅,故而也不是任何意義上的「災難」都可以使用這個詞。
結合《單子論》第5則:For the same reason there is no conceivable way in which a simple substance can come into being by natural means, since it cannot be formed by the combination of parts [composition].(同理,不可想像單純實體會以自然的方式而被產生,因為它不是由部分的組合而構成的。)可知,萊布尼茨此處是想說:單子不能像自然物一樣自然地產生和消亡,而只能依靠超自然的上帝的創始而產生,依靠末日毀滅而消亡。可見,萊布尼茨此處用「creation」和「annihilation」二詞,即已暗含單子只能由上帝產生和毀滅的意思,盡管文中只字未提「上帝」一詞,而原譯文「它只能通過創造而產生,通過毀滅而消亡」則全然體現不出這一點。
7.Further, there is no way of explaining how a Monad can be altered in quality or internally changed by any other created thing; since it is impossible to change the place of anything in it or to conceive in it any internal motion which could be produced, directed, increased or diminished therein, although all this is possible in the case of compounds, in which there are changes among the parts. The Monads have no windows, through which anything could come in or go out. Accidents cannot separate themselves from substances nor go about outside of them, as the
① 可參見卡羅琳·麥西特《自然之死》第 可參見卡羅琳·麥西特《自然之死》第 可參見卡羅琳·麥西特《自然之死》第 可參見卡羅琳·麥西特《自然之死》第 11 章,第 章,第 2節,「 節,「 康韋、范·赫爾蒙特與萊布尼茨的單子論」,吳 」,吳 」,吳 國盛等譯,吉林人民出版社 19991999199919993
『sensible species』 of the Scholastics used to do. Thus neither substance nor accident can come into a Monad from outside.
而且,無法解釋單子如何可能被其他的創造物施以質的改變或內在的變化;因為不可能改變它內部的任何東西的位置,也不可想像在其中任何內部的變化能夠被產生、引導、增加或減少,而所有這些在複合物的情況下都是可能的,因為在其中變化是相關於部分的。單子沒有可供事物出入的窗戶。偶性不能脫離實體存在,不能游離於實體之外,像經院哲學家的「感性形式」①那樣。因而實體和偶性都不能從外部進入單子。
解釋:在此,萊布尼茨接受了近代哲學中流行的機械力學的思想,即一切作用都是相關於量的。既然單子沒有任何量的規定性,那麼它就不可能接受任何外界的作用和影響,「沒有可供事物出入的窗戶」,從而具有徹底的獨立自足性。
Aug 14, 2025