里昂·S·魯迪耶茲(Leon S. Roudiez)曾指出,符號與象徵之間的關係可以被理解為用兩種不同的絲線織成的一塊布料。那些由身體衝動或感知所織就的部分與語言的符號特性相關,通常也被稱作「生成文本」。字母的某種組合方式以及某種發音(例如詩歌中的頭韻法以及擬聲法)等都是與詞義本身無關的生成文本。那些產生於社會文化框架、語法以及其他一些規則制約下的語言元素則是一種象徵特性,也被稱作「現象文本」(Roudiez 1984:5)。
89.It may also be said that God as Architect satisfies in all respects God as Lawgiver, and thus that sins must bear their penalty with them, through the order of nature, and even in virtue of the mechanical structure of things; and similarly that noble actions will attain their rewards by ways which, on the bodily side, are mechanical, although this cannot and ought not always to happen immediately.
90 Finally, under this perfect government no good action would be unrewarded and no bad one unpunished, and all should issue in the well-being of the good, that is to say, of those who are not malcontents in this great state, but who trust in Providence, after having done their duty, and who love and imitate, as is meet, the Author of all good, finding pleasure in the contemplation of His perfections, as is the way of genuine 『pure love,』 which takes pleasure in the happiness of the beloved. This it is which leads wise and virtuous people to devote their energies to everything which appears in harmony with the presumptive or antecedent will of God, and yet makes them content with what God actually brings to pass by His secret, consequent and positive [decisive] will, recognizing that if we could sufficiently understand the order of the universe, we should find that it exceeds all the desires of the wisest men, and that it is impossible to make it better than it is, not only as a whole and in general but also for ourselves in particular, if we are attached, as we ought to be, to the Author of all, not only as to the architect and efficient cause of our being, but as to our master and to the final cause, which ought to be the whole aim of our will, and which can alone make our happiness. (Theod. Pref. 134,ad fin., 278.)
解釋:萊布尼茨引用了經院哲學的兩個重要術語,即上帝的假定的、在先的意志(presumptive or antecedent will)和上帝的結果的和決定(consequent and positive will)的意志。上帝的假定的、在先的意志是指上帝主觀上希望人類在各方面都得到最大的幸福;上帝的結果的和決定的意志是指由於世界和人的局限性,以及個體與個體之間、整體和部分之間還有過去、現在與將來之間必須相協調的極端複雜性,上帝在客觀上只能給予人類在現實條件制約之下的盡可能多的幸福。上帝的結果的和決定的意志不是人類的有限的理智所能夠認識和預料的,因此,賢明之士盡人事而聽天命,在行動時遵循上帝的假定的、在先的意志,為全人類的幸福而努力,無論其結果如何都欣然接受,因為這是上帝的結果的和決定的意志的體現。
(莱布尼兹《單子論》,桑靖宇翻譯/註釋( 2008年初);The Monadology (1714)by Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz [1646-1716],English edition translated by Robert Latta (1898); 作者單位:武漢大學哲學學院教授,原見:百度文庫)
83.Among other differences which exist between ordinary souls and minds [esprits], some of which differences I have already noted, there is also this: that souls in general are living mirrors or images of the universe of created things, but that minds are also images of the Deity or Author of nature Himself, capable of knowing the system of the universe, and to some extent of imitating it through architectonic ensamples [echantillons], each mind being like a small divinity in its own sphere. (Theod. 147.)
84.It is this that enables spirits [or minds—esprits] to enter into a kind of fellowship with God, and brings it about that in relation to them He is not only what an inventor is to his machine (which is the relation of God to other created things), but also what a prince is to his subjects, and, indeed, what a father is to his children.
85. Whence it is easy to conclude that the totality [assemblage] of all spirits [esprits] must compose the City of God, that is to say, the most perfect State that is possible, under the most perfect of Monarchs. (Theod. 146; Abrege, Object. 2.)
86. This City of God, this truly universal monarchy, is a moral world in the natural world, and is the most exalted and most divine among the works of God; and it is in it that the glory of God really consists, for He would have no glory were not His greatness and His goodness known and admired by spirits [esprits]. It is also in relation to this divine City that God specially has goodness, while His wisdom and His power are manifested everywhere.
87. As we have shown above that there is a perfect harmony between the two realms in nature, one of efficient, and the other of final causes, we should here notice also another harmony between the physical realm of nature and the moral realm of grace, that is to say, between God, considered as Architect of the mechanism [machine] of the universe and God considered as Monarch of the divine City of spirits [esprits]. (Theod. 62, 74, 112, 118, 130, 247,248.)
78.These principles have given me a way of explaining naturally the union or rather the mutual agreement [conformite] of the soul and the organic body. The soul follows its own laws, and the body likewise follows its own laws; and they agree with each other in virtue of the pre-established harmony between all substances, since they are all representations of one and the same universe. (Theod. Pref. 340, 352, 353, 358.)
79. Souls act according to the laws of final causes through appetitions, ends, and means. Bodies act according to the laws of efficient causes or motions. And the two realms, that of efficient causes and that of final causes, are in harmony with one another.
80. Descartes recognized that souls cannot impart any force to bodies, because there is always the same quantity of force in matter. Nevertheless he was of opinion that the soul could change the direction of bodies. But that is because in his time it was not known that there is a law of nature which affirms also the conservation of the same total direction in matter. Had Descartes noticed this he would have come upon my system of pre-established harmony. (Theod. Pref. 22, 59-61, 63, 66, 345-348, 354, 355.)
81. According to this system bodies act as if (to suppose the impossible) there were no souls, and souls act as if there were no bodies, and both act as if each influenced the other.
82. As regards minds [esprits] or rational souls, though I find that what I have just been saying is true of all living beings and animals (namely that animals and souls come into being when the world begins and no more come to an end that the world does), yet there is this peculiarity in rational animals, that their spermatic animalcules, so long as they are only spermatic, have merely ordinary or sensuous [sensitive] souls; but when those which are chosen [elus], so to speak, attain to human nature through an actual conception, their sensuous souls are raised to the rank of reason and to the prerogative of minds [esprits]. (Theod. 91, 397.)
73.It also follows from this that there never is absolute birth [generation] nor complete death, in the strict sense, consisting in the separation of the soul from the body. What we call births [generations] are developments and growths, while what we call deaths are envelopments and diminutions.
74.Philosophers have been much perplexed about the origin of forms, entelechies, or souls; but nowadays it has become known, through careful studies of plants, insects, and animals, that the organic bodies of nature are never products of chaos or putrefaction, but always come from seeds, in which there was undoubtedly some preformation; and it is held that not only the organic body was already there before conception, but also a soul in this body, and, in short, the animal itself; and that by means of conception this animal has merely been prepared for the great transformation involved in its becoming an animal of another kind. Something like this is indeed seen apart from birth [generation], as when worms become flies and caterpillars become butterflies. (Theod. Pref.86,89, 90, 187, 188, 397,403.)
75.The animals, of which some are raised by means of conception to the rank of larger animals, may be called spermatic, but those among them which are not so raised but remain in their own kind (that is, the majority) are born, multiply, and are destroyed like the large animals, and it is only a few chosen ones [elus] that pass to a greater theatre.
76.But this is only half of the truth, and accordingly I hold that if an animal never comes into being by natural means
77.Thus it may be said that not only the soul (mirror of an indestructible universe) is indestructible, but also the animal itself, though its mechanism [machine] may often perish in part and take off or put on an organic slough [des depouilles organiques].
71.But it must not be imagined, as has been done by some who have misunderstood my thought, that each soul has a quantity or portion of matter belonging exclusively to itself or attached to it for ever, and that it consequently owns other inferior living beings, which are devoted for ever to its service. For all bodies are in a perpetual flux like rivers, and parts are entering into them and passing out of them continually.
72. Thus the soul changes its body only by degrees, little by little, so that it is never all at once deprived of all its organs; and there is often metamorphosis in animals, but never metempsychosis or transmigration of souls; nor are there souls entirely separate [from bodies] nor unembodied spirits [genies sans corps]. God alone is completely without body. (Theod. 90, 124.)
67. Each portion of matter may be conceived as like a garden full of plants and like a pond full of fishes. But each branch of every plant, each member(orga n)of every animal, each drop of its liquid parts is also some such garden or pond.
68. And though the earth and the air which are between the plants of the garden, or the water which is between the fish of the pond, be neither plant nor fish; yet they also contain plants and fishes, but mostly so minute as to be imperceptible to us.
69. Thus there is nothing fallow, nothing sterile, nothing dead in the universe, no chaos, no confusion save in appearance, somewhat as it might appear to be in a pond at a distance, in which one would see a confused movement and, as it were, a swarming of fish in the pond, without separately distinguishing the fish themselves. (Theod. Pref. [E. 475 b; 477 b; G. vi. 40, 44].)
因而,在宇宙中沒有任何荒蕪的、貧瘠的或死亡的東西,沒有任何混沌和混亂,除了表面現象之外。有些像遠處的池塘所顯現的那樣,人們只能遠遠看到魚的群集和混亂的運動,而不能看清魚本身。(參見《神正論》,前言,[E. 475 b; 477 b; G. vi. 40, 44])
70. Hence it appears that each living body has a dominant entelechy, which in an animal is the soul; but the members of this living body are full of other living beings, plants, animals, each of which has also its dominant entelechy or soul.
63.The body belonging to a Monad (which is its entelechy or its soul) constitutes along with the entelechy what may be called a living being, and along with the soul what is called an animal. Now this body of living being or of an animal is always organic; for, as every Monad is, in its own way, a mirror of the universe, and as the universe is ruled according to a perfect order, there must also be order in that which represents it, i.e. in the perceptions of the soul, and consequently there must be order in the body, through which the universe is represented in the soul. (Theod. 403.)
64.Thus the organic body of each living being is a kind of divine machine or natural automaton, which infinitely surpasses all artificial automata. For a machine made by the skill of man is not a machine in each of its parts. For instance, the tooth of a brass wheel has parts or fragments which for us are not artificial products, and which do not have the special characteristics of the machine, for they give no indication of the use for which the wheel was intended. But the machines of nature, namely, living bodies, are still machines in their smallest parts ad infinitum. It is this that constitutes the difference between nature and art, that is to say, between the divine art and ours. (Theod. 134, 146, 194, 403.)
65.And the Author of nature has been able to employ this divine and infinitely wonderful power of art, because each portion of matter is not only infinitely divisible, as the ancients observed, but is also actually subdivided without end, each part into further parts, of which each has some motion of its own; otherwise it would be impossible for each portion of matter to express the whole universe. (Theod. Prelim., Disc. 70, and 195.)
61.And compounds are in this respect analogous with [symbolisent avec] simple substances. For all is a plenum and thus all matter is connected together and in the plenum every motion has an effect upon distant bodies in proportion to their distance, so that each body not only is affected by those which are in contact with it and in some way feels the effect of everything that happens to them, but also is mediately affected by bodies adjoining those with which it itself is in immediate contact. Wherefore it follows that this inter-communication of things extends to any distance, however great. And consequently every body feels the effect of all that takes place in the universe, so that he who sees all might read in each what is happening everywhere, and even what has happened or shall happen, observing in the present that which is far off as well in time as in place: sympnoia panta, as Hippocrates said. But a soul can read in itself only that which is there represented distinctly; it cannot all at once unroll everything that is enfolded in it, for its complexity is infinite.
62. Thus, although each created Monad represents the whole universe, it represents more distinctly the body which specially pertains to it, and of which it is the entelechy; and as this body expresses the whole universe through the connexion of all matter in the plenum, the soul also represents the whole universe in representing this body, which belongs to it in a special way. (Theod. 400.)
58.And by this means there is obtained as great variety as possible, along with the greatest possible order; that is to say, it is the way to get as much perfection as possible. (Theod. 120, 124, 241, 214-243, 275.)
59.Besides, no hypothesis but this (which I venture to call proved) fittingly exalts the greatness of God; and this Monsieur Bayle recognized when, in his Dictionary (article Rorarius), he raised objections to it, in which indeed he was inclined to think that I was attributing too much to God—more than it is possible to attribute. But he was unable to give any reason which could show the impossibility of this universal harmony, according to which every substance exactly expresses all others through the relations it has with them.
60.Further, in what I have just said there may be seen the reasons a priori why things could not be otherwise than they are. For God in regulating the whole has had regard to each part, and in particular to each Monad, whose nature being to represent, nothing can confine it to the representing of only one part of things; though it is true that this representation is merely confused as regards the variety of particular things [le detail] in the whole universe, and can be distinct only as regards a small part of things, namely, those which are either nearest or greatest in relation to each of the Monads; otherwise each Monad would be a deity. It is not as regards their object, but as regards the different ways in which they have knowledge of their object, that the Monads are limited. In a confused way they all strive after the infinite, the whole; but they are limited and differentiated through the degrees of their distinct perceptions.
52.Accordingly, among created things, activities and passivities are mutual. For God, comparing two simple substances, finds in each reasons which oblige Him to adapt the other to it, and consequently what is active in certain respects is passive from another point of view; active in so far as what we distinctly know in it serves to explain [rendre raison de] what takes place in another, and passive in so far as the explanation [raison] of what takes place in it is to be found in that which is distinctly known in another. (Theod. 66.)
53. Now, as in the Ideas of God there is an infinite number of possible universes, and as only one of them can be actual, there must be a sufficient reason for the choice of God, which leads Him to decide upon one rather than another. (Theod. 8, 10, 44, 173, 196-199,225, 414-416.)
54. And this reason can be found only in the fitness [convenance], or in the degrees of perfection, that these worlds possess, since each possible thing has the right to aspire to existence in proportion to the amount of perfection it contains in germ. (Theod. 74, 130,167, 201, 345-347,350,352,354.)
55. Thus the actual existence of the best that wisdom makes known to God is due to this, that His goodness makes Him choose it, and His power makes Him produce it. (Theod. 8, 78, 80, 84, 119, 204, 206, 208. Abrege, Object. 1 and 8.)
56. Now this connexion or adaptation of all created things to each and of each to all, means that each simple substance has relations which express all the others, and, consequently, that it is a perpetual living mirror of the universe. (Theod. 130, 360.)
57. And as the same town, looked at from various sides, appears quite different and becomes as it were numerous in aspects [perspectivement]; even so, as a result of the infinite number of simple substances, it is as if there were so many different universes, which, nevertheless are nothing but aspects [perspectives] of a single universe, according to the special point of view of each Monad. (Theod. 147.)
48.In God there is Power, which is the source of all, also Knowledge, whose content is the variety of the ideas, and finally Will, which makes changes or products according to the principle of the best. (Theod. 7, 149, 150.) These characteristics correspond to what in the created Monads forms the ground or basis, to the faculty of Perception and to the faculty of Appetition. But in God these attributes are absolutely infinite or perfect; and in the created Monads or the Entelechies (or perfectihabiae, as Hermolaus Barbarus translated the word) there are only imitations of these attributes, according to the degree of perfection of the Monad. (Theod. 87.)
49. A created thing is said to act outwardly in so far as it has perfection, and to suffer [or be passive, patir] in relation to another, in so far as it is imperfect. Thus activity [action] is attributed to a Monad, in so far as it has distinct perceptions, and passivity [passion] in so far as its perceptions are confused. (Theod. 32, 66, 386.)
50. And one created thing is more perfect than another, in this, that there is found in the more perfect that which serves to explain a priori what takes place in the less perfect, and it is on this account that the former is said to act upon the latter.
51. But in simple substances the influence of one Monad upon another is only ideal, and it can have its effect only through the mediation of God, in so far as in the ideas of God any Monad rightly claims that God, in regulating the others from the beginning of things, should have regard to it. For since one created Monad cannot have any physical influence upon the inner being of another, it is only by this means that the one can be dependent upon the other. (Theod. 9, 54, 65, 66, 201. Abrege, Object. 3.)
45.Thus God alone (or the necessary Being) has this prerogative that He must necessarily exist, if He is possible. And as nothing can interfere with the possibility of that which involves no limits, no negation and consequently no contradiction, this [His possibility] is sufficient of itself to make known the existence of God a priori. We have thus proved it, through the reality of eternal truths. But a little while ago we proved it also a posteriori, since there exist contingent beings, which can have their final or sufficient reason only in the necessary Being, which has the reason of its existence in itself.
46. We must not, however, imagine, as some do, that eternal truths, being dependent on God, are arbitrary and depend on His will, as Descartes, and afterwards M. Poiret, appear to have held. That is true only of contingent truths, of which the principle is fitness [convenance] or choice of the best, whereas necessary truths depend solely on His understanding and are its inner object. (Theod. 180-184, 185, 335, 351, 380.)
Thus God alone is the primary unity or original simple substance, of which all created or derivative Monads are products and have their birth, so to speak, through continual fulgurations of the Divinity from moment to moment, limited by the receptivity of the created being, of whose essence it is to have limits. (Theod. 382-391, 398, 395.)
41.Whence it follows that God is absolutely perfect; for perfection is nothing but amount of positive reality, in the strict sense, leaving out of account the limits or bounds in things which are limited. And where there are no bounds, that is to say in God, perfection is absolutely infinite. (Theod. Pref.22, [E. 469 a; G. vi. 27].)
由此可知,上帝是絕對完滿的;因為嚴格意義上的完滿性正是指積極實在性之全部,而將有限之物的局限和限度排除在外。在沒有局限之處,即在上帝中,完滿性是絕對無限的。(參見《神正論》序言 第22節[E. 469 a; G. vi. 27].)
42.It follows also that created beings derive their perfections from the influence of God, but that their imperfections come from their own nature, which is incapable of being without limits. For it is in this that they differ from God. An instance of this original imperfection of created beings may be seen in the natural inertia of bodies. (Theod. 20, 27-30, 153, 167, 377-378,380;Abridgmet,obj.5.)
43.It is farther true that in God there is not only the source of existences but also that of essences, in so far as they are real, that is to say, the source of what is real in the possible. For the understanding of God is the region of eternal truths or of the ideas on which they depend, and without Him there would be nothing real in the possibilities of things, and not only would there be nothing in existence, but nothing would even be possible. (Theod. 20.)
44.For if there is a reality in essences or possibilities, or rather in eternal truths, this reality must needs be founded in something existing and actual, and consequently in the existence of the necessary Being, in whom essence involves existence, or in whom to be possible is to be actual. (Theod. 184-189, 335.)
Thus the final reason of things must be in a necessary substance, in which the variety of particular changes exists only eminently, as in its source; and this substance we call God. (Theod. 7.)
39.Now as this substance is a sufficient reason of all this variety of particulars, which are also connected together throughout; there is only one God, and this God is sufficient.
40.We may also hold that this supreme substance, which is unique, universal and necessary, nothing outside of it being independent of it,—this substance, which is a pure sequence of possible being, must be illimitable and must contain as much reality as is possible.
35.In short, there are simple ideas, of which no definition can be given; there are also axioms and postulates, in a word, primary principles, which cannot be proved, and indeed have no need of proof; and these are identical propositions, whose opposite involves an express contradiction. (Theod. 36, 37, 44, 45, 49, 52, 121-122, 337, 340-344.)
36.But there must also be a sufficient reason for contingent truths or truths of fact, that is to say, for the sequence or connexion of the things which are dispersed throughout the universe of created beings, in which the analyzing into particular reasons might go on into endless detail, because of the immense variety of things in nature and the infinite division of bodies. There is an infinity of present and past forms and motions which go to make up the efficient cause of my present writing; and there is an infinity of minute tendencies and dispositions of my soul, which go to make its final cause.
37.And as all this detail again involves other prior or more detailed contingent things, each of which still needs a similar analysis to yield its reason, we are no further forward;and the sufficient or final reason must be outside of the sequence or series of particular contingent things, however infinite this series may be.
32.And that of sufficient reason, in virtue of which we hold that there can be no fact real or existing, no statement true, unless there be a sufficient reason, why it should be so and not otherwise, although these reasons usually cannot be known by us. (Theod. 44, 196.)
33.There are also two kinds of truths, those of reasoning and those of fact. Truths of reasoning are necessary and their opposite is impossible; truths of fact are contingent and their opposite is possible. When a truth is necessary, its reason can be found by analysis, resolving it into more simple ideas and truths, until we come to those which are primary. (Theod. 170, 174, 189, 280-282, 367. Abrege, Object. 3.)
解釋:萊布尼茨的理性的兩大原則矛盾律和充足理由律分別對應於兩種不同的真理,即推理的真理和事實的真理,或者必然的真理和偶然的真理。在他看來,推理的真理或必然真理指是指必然為真的同一性的陳述,即通過人的理性分析,可發現該陳述的謂詞包含語主詞之中。由此可知,與之相應的矛盾律的本質就在於a﹦a,因而萊布尼茨有時又將矛盾律稱為同一律(principle of identity)。他認為,邏輯學和數學就是建立在矛盾律或同一律的基礎上的,是相關於邏輯世界或可能世界的。
28. In so far as the concatenation of their perceptions is due to the principle of memory alone, men act like the lower animals, resembling the empirical physicians, whose methods are those of mere practice without theory. Indeed, in three-fourths of our actions we are nothing but empirics. For instance, when we expect that there will be daylight to-morrow, we do so empirically, because it has always so happened until now. It is only the astronomer who thinks it on rational grounds.
29. But it is the knowledge of necessary and eternal truths that distinguishes us from the mere animals and gives us Reason and the sciences, raising us to the knowledge of ourselves and of God. And it is this in us that is called the rational soul or mind [esprit].
30. It is also through the knowledge of necessary truths, and through their abstract expression, that we rise to acts of reflexion, which make us think of what is called I, and observe that this or that is within us;and thus, thinking of ourselves, we think of being, of substance, of the simple and the compound, of the immaterial, and of God Himself, conceiving that what is limited in us is in Him without limits. And these acts of reflexion furnish the chief objects of our reasonings. (Theod. Pref. [E. 469; G. vi. 27].)
也正是憑借必然真理的知識以及它們的抽象表達,我們才提升到具有反思活動,這使我們能夠思維所謂「自我」,並觀察到這或那處於「我們」之中;就這樣,通過思維自我,我們也就思維到存在、實體,思維到單純物和複合物,以及非實在之物和上帝自身,並設想在我們身上有限的卻會在上帝之中沒有限制。這些反思的活動為我們(當前的形而上學)①的推理提供了主要對象。(參見《神正論》前言,[E. 469; G. vi. 27])
31. Our reasonings are grounded upon two great principles, that of contradiction, in virtue of which we judge false that which involves a contradiction, and true that which is opposed or contradictory to the false; (Theod. 44, 169.)
25.We see also that nature has given heightened perceptions to animals, from the care she has taken to provide them with organs, which collect numerous rays of light, or numerous undulations of the air, in order, by uniting them, to make them have greater effect. Something similar to this takes place in smell, in taste and in touch, and perhaps in a number of other senses, which are unknown to us. And I will explain presently how that which takes place in the soul represents what happens in the bodily organs.
26. Memory provides the soul with a kind of consecutiveness, which resembles [imite] reason, but which is to be distinguished from it. Thus we see that when animals have a perception of something which strikes them and of which they have formerly had a similar perception, they are led, by means of representation in their memory, to expect what was combined with the thing in this previous perception, and they come to have feelings similar to those they had on the former occasion. For instance, when a stick is shown to dogs, they remember the pain it has caused them, and howl and run away. (Theod. Preliminary Discourse, sec. 65.)
27. And the strength of the mental image which impresses and moves them comes either from the magnitude or the number of the preceding perceptions. For often a strong impression produces all at once the same effect as a long-formed habit, or as many and oft-repeated ordinary perceptions.
21.And it does not follow that in this state the simple substance is without any perception. That, indeed, cannot be, for the reasons already given; for it cannot perish, and it cannot continue to exist without being affected in some way, and this affection is nothing but its perception. But when there is a great multitude of little perceptions, in which there is nothing distinct, one is stunned; as when one turns continuously round in the same way several times in succession, whence comes a giddiness which may make us swoon, and which keeps us from distinguishing anything. Death can for a time put animals into this condition.
22.And as every present state of a simple substance is naturally a consequence of its preceding state, in such a way that its present is big with its future; (Theod. 350.)
23.And as, on waking from stupor, we are conscious of our perceptions, we must have had perceptions immediately before we awoke, although we were not at all conscious of them; for one perception can in a natural way come only from another perception, as a motion can in a natural way come only from a motion. (Theod. 401-403.)
24.It thus appears that if we had in our perceptions nothing marked and, so to speak, striking and highly-flavoured, we should always be in a state of stupor. And this is the state in which the bare Monads are.
17.Moreover, it must be confessed that perception and that which depends upon it are inexplicable on mechanical grounds, that is to say, by means of figures and motions. And supposing there were a machine, so constructed as to think, feel, and have perception, it might be conceived as increased in size, while keeping the same proportions, so that one might go into it as into a mill. That being so, we should, on examining its interior, find only parts which work one upon another, and never anything by which to explain a perception. Thus it is in a simple substance, and not in a compound or in a machine, that perception must be sought for. Further, nothing but this (namely, perceptions and their changes) can be found in a simple substance. It is also in this alone that all the internal activities of simple substances can consist. (Theod. Pref. [E. 474; G. vi. 37].)
此外,必須承認,知覺以及依賴於知覺的東西,不能用機械的原因來解釋,也就是說,不能用形狀和運動來解釋。假設有一架機器,被制作得能夠思想、感受和擁有知覺,想像它在保持同一比例的情況下在尺寸上被放大,以至於人們可以像走進磨坊一樣進入它。在這種情況下,在考察它的內部的時候,我們只能看到一些部分作用於另一部分,而決找不到任何能夠解釋知覺的東西。因此,只能在單純實體中而非在複合物或機器中尋找知覺。況且,在單純實體中能被找到的只有這個(即知覺及其變化)。單純實體的全部內在運動也僅在於此。(參見《神正論》序言,[E. 474; G. vi. 37])
18.All simple substances or created Monads might be called Entelechies, for they have in them a certain perfection (echousi to enteles); they have a certain self-sufficiency (autarkeia) which makes them the sources of their internal activities and, so to speak, incorporeal automata. (Theod. 87.)
19.If we are to give the name of Soul to everything which has perceptions and desires [appetits] in the general sense which I have explained, then all simple substances or created Monads might be called souls; but as feeling [le sentiment] is something more than a bare perception, I think it right that the general name of Monads or Entelechies should suffice for simple substances which have perception only, and that the name of Souls should be given only to those in which perception is more distinct, and is accompanied by memory.
20.For we experience in ourselves a condition in which we remember nothing and have no distinguishable perception; as when we fall into a swoon or when we are overcome with a profound dreamless sleep. In this state the soul does not perceptibly differ from a bare Monad; but as this state is not lasting, and the soul comes out of it, the soul is something more than a bare Monad. (Theod. 64.)
14.The passing condition, which involves and represents a multiplicity in the unit [unite] or in the simple substance, is nothing but what is called Perception, which is to be distinguished from Apperception or Consciousness, as will afterwards appear. In this matter the Cartesian view is extremely defective, for it treats as non-existent those perceptions of which we are not consciously aware. This has also led them to believe that minds [esprits] alone are Monads, and that there are no souls of animals nor other Entelechies. Thus, like the crowd, they have failed to distinguish between a prolonged unconsciousness and absolute death, which has made them fall again into the Scholastic prejudice of souls entirely separate [from bodies], and has even confirmed ill-balanced minds in the opinion that souls are mortal.
15,The activity of the internal principle which produces change or passage from one perception to another may be called Appetition. It is true that desire [l'appetit] cannot always fully attain to the whole perception at which it aims, but it always obtains some of it and attains to new perceptions.
16. We have in ourselves experience of a multiplicity in simple substance, when we find that the least thought of which we are conscious involves variety in its object. Thus all those who admit that the soul is a simple substance should admit this multiplicity in the Monad; and M. Bayle ought not to have found any difficulty in this, as he has done in his Dictionary, article 『Rorarius.』
10.I assume also as admitted that every created being, and consequently the created Monad, is subject to change, and further that this change is continuous in each.
11.It follows from what has just been said, that the natural changes of the Monads come from an internal principle, since an external cause can have no influence upon their inner being. (Theod. 396, 400.)
12.But, besides the principle of the change, there must be a particular series of changes [un detail de ce qui change], which constitutes, so to speak, the specific nature and variety of the simple substances.
但是,除了變化的原則之外,還必須有一個變化的特殊系列,它構成了單純實體的特殊性和不同性。
13.This particular series of changes should involve a multiplicity in the unit [unite] or in that which is simple. For, as every natural change takes place gradually, something changes and something remains unchanged; and consequently a simple substance must be affected and related in many ways, although it has no parts.
8.Yet the Monads must have some qualities, otherwise they would not even be existing things. And if simple substances did not differ in quality, there would be absolutely no means of perceiving any change in things. For what is in the compound can come only from the simple elements it contains, and the Monads, if they had no qualities, would be indistinguishable from one another, since they do not differ in quantity. Consequently, space being a plenum, each part of space would always receive, in any motion, exactly the equivalent of what it already had, and no one state of things would be discernible from another.
9.Indeed, each Monad must be different from every other. For in nature there are never two beings which are perfectly alike and in which it is not possible to find an internal difference, or at least a difference founded upon an intrinsic quality [denomination].
luova ajatus
符號:情境中,非言語維度的互動(續上)讓我們將這種觀點往前推進一步,關注到對語言有一定掌握的孩童。當母親給孩童唱搖籃曲時,歌詞共享著「睡覺吧小寶貝」這樣一種社會含義,它構成了一種象徵;另外一方面,母親唱歌時的節奏、音調以及其他一些聽覺元素則表達著符號維度。現在,想象一下假如母親用一種平直的語調去讀這些歌詞,而不是用溫柔的音調去唱並且配合一些表演。那麼,這很可能對孩童沒有什麼作用。
與之相反的,假如用一種大聲的、憤怒的命令語氣去表達這些歌詞的話,那肯定會有一些作用的。在這種情境中,非言語維度的互動(例如哭泣的音量與頻率,母親聲音的音調與音色)或許可以很好地闡明克里斯蒂娃所提出的「符號」概念。在藝術的語言中,由於藝術家對修飾編碼的熟練操控,符號往往以更為多樣和複雜的樣貌出現。
這種符號是由音節效果或者語音效果構成的,它們將語言系統推回到聽覺產物的基礎驅動控制中去。詞語的選取和排序、重復、特定組合以及獨立於語言交流功能之外而運作的聲音,這些都構成了符號功能,這種符號功能能夠為某種說法方式或者文本內容增加一些潛在的含義。在視覺語言中,構成符號的音節效果將系統推回到了視覺產物的基礎驅動控制中去。
色彩、視覺記號以及獨立於圖像或圖標之外而運作的形式元素喚起了感知或情感,而此種機制則與這些感知或情感相關。這里最為重要的是,植根於口頭語言和視覺語言運用之中的的驅動力,或者說身體衝動是如何引發形成多種或多重含義的。這種以符號的形式表達出來的驅動或者衝動,往往是貫穿於語言之中的。
在創作實踐中,生成文本元素或者語言的符號特性都反映著一種言說主體的變遷、彰顯著一種游戲或取樂的能力,這種游戲或取樂的能力掙脫了符號規則所帶來的一切限制。這種符號特性在表征代碼(現象文本)與言說(或聽覺、視覺)主體的碎片體或驅動體之間構建起了一種關聯機制。這種關聯機制則預示著某種「先鋒」的概念以及對先鋒的反叛。由此,實踐可以被理解為是一種對象徵規則的接納,同時也是對規則的反叛(從而對規則進行革新)(Kristeva 1986:29)。
里昂·S·魯迪耶茲(Leon S. Roudiez)曾指出,符號與象徵之間的關係可以被理解為用兩種不同的絲線織成的一塊布料。那些由身體衝動或感知所織就的部分與語言的符號特性相關,通常也被稱作「生成文本」。字母的某種組合方式以及某種發音(例如詩歌中的頭韻法以及擬聲法)等都是與詞義本身無關的生成文本。那些產生於社會文化框架、語法以及其他一些規則制約下的語言元素則是一種象徵特性,也被稱作「現象文本」(Roudiez 1984:5)。
與靜態的織布相區別的是,語言具有流動性,且由於個體、社會乃至歷史上對語言的運用使得語言不斷發生著變遷。克里斯蒂娃的研究有如下兩個重要的關鍵點:第一,語言必須要被言說或者被聆聽、必須要被置於過程之中才能夠具備含義,才能夠對我們施加影響;第二,這種被置於過程之中的語言必須同我們的生理過程、情感與感知息息相關,它才能夠具備含義並影響我們。
當符號與象徵不能充分的相互關聯時,語言、交流乃至社會聯結將失去意義與價值。由此,我們可以領會到,對於克里斯蒂娃的「作為物質過程的語言」的研究來說,「主體與實踐」具有怎樣的重要性。創造性實踐或者語言的運用,它們都包含有一種符號與象徵之間的聯結,一種語言與我們人生經驗之間的聯結。 (克里斯蒂娃眼中的藝術;埃絲特爾·巴雷特,2020-01-18;重庆大学出版社;思想家眼中的藝術叢書,182 pages)
Apr 29, 2024
luova ajatus
目錄
作為物質過程的語言
符號與象徵
否定、拒斥與意義生成
實踐與經驗藝術、經驗與革命
第二章作 為實踐的闡釋
欲望與語言
作為實踐的闡釋:經驗的符號論
符號分析法與X功能
作為互動分析的闡釋
實踐與戲謔
第三章 藝術與情感
什麼是情感
為什麼精神憂郁
憎惡與暴力
精神分析法、精神憂郁症與藝術
藝術中的死亡與耶穌復活
什麼是愛
作為哀悼之做的敘事
第四章 賤斥、藝術與觀眾
作為文化啟蒙的「賤斥」
為什麼恐懼
「賤斥」與空間
「賤斥」與反常
「賤斥」、愉悅與升華
「賤斥」、藝術與觀眾
比爾.漢森
誰的視覺?誰的情感抒發?
第五章 作為實踐的研究:一種行動范式
為什麼「反叛」
反叛的三種形式
違反禁忌的反叛
操演性、科學以及新物質主義
講故事:作為重復與反叛的回憶療愈
誰能反叛?取代、組合、游戲
女性主義攝影技巧以及多重愉悅
結語
符號與象徵
母體並不是一種靜止不動的容器,她主要感知著聲音(語音節奏)與語言韻律。這種互動與交換的空間或場所,促使形成了克里斯蒂娃稱之為符號「母體空間」(chora)的理論,它烙下了經驗的最初印記、它是一種用以被遵循的尚且稚嫩的語言信號。
「母體空間」是身體衝動、能量載荷以及精神印記之間的一種聯結體,它構成了一種「不可言喻」的整合體,它不為形式所讓步,卻因其效能而為人所知。「母體空間」與始終處於活動狀態中的身體活力相關,並且始終尋求活有機體的能力最大化。
它是搏動強度、張力與張力釋放之間的一種組合體,而這一系列活動產生於同生命系統之上或之外的事物的互動過程中。「母體空間」的運轉先於語言的習得,它依照優先於語言的一套邏輯體系對前語言空間進行組織規劃。這種運轉或者說符號功能是通過生物驅動與能量釋放構建起來的,它們最初圍繞在母體周圍,堅持作為一種象徵模式而存在,這種象徵模式貫穿於主體的整個生命之中,支配著個體與他者之間的種種聯結。
它們清晰呈現出了一種身體與外在事物之間的、身體與語言之間的連續統一體(Kristeva 1984:27)。既然身體必然的被牽涉進我們同語言的碰撞中,那麼現在我們或許理解了,「符號」是一種另類的語言「代碼」,是一種「身體認知」,盡管它們將自身融入到了意義的傳達中去,而這些意義則是被表征於社會關係之中的。我們可以通過對新生嬰兒同母親之間的互動進行思考,去領會「非言語」維度或者說「前語言」維度的作用。
就算嬰兒尚未被安置於語言范疇之中、或者尚未被牽涉到任何事物之中,母親的一個微笑或者注意力的轉移仍可以被嬰兒所感知或者理解。嬰孩對於哭泣或者微笑的反應逐漸在其身體、生理以及社會環境之中構建起了一系列互動與效能。新的意義與行為(實踐)產生自嬰孩的生理反應(非言語事件)與家長的養育反應(既有語言行為也有社會調停行為,如被認可的撫養方式)的結合體,並且非言語反應或者未經調停的反應可能因嬰孩哭泣的聲調與強度的不同而有所差異。(下續)
Apr 30, 2024
luova ajatus
埃絲特爾·巴雷特:克里斯蒂娃眼中的藝術
編輯推薦:作者多年的教學以及同藝術家共事的經驗告訴我們,概念與觀點就像工具一樣,只要有用處它們就有探究價值。本書的大部分內容與思路都是建立在此種觀念之上的。當然,這里也有一些疑問(這些疑問也構成了我們踏上征途的路徑圖):克里斯蒂娃哪些方面的研究與藝術家最相關?她的研究如何闡釋實踐與創作過程?如何使用克里斯蒂娃的觀點來解讀藝術品?她的研究如何闡釋藝術家與藝術品之間,藝術家、藝術品與觀眾之間,藝術與知識之間的關係?最後,這些問題的答案是否能揭示出藝術在現代社會中的角色與功能?
除了關注實用性而外,還必須向大家介紹克里斯蒂娃整體思想的核心主題,這些核心主題詳盡闡釋了克里斯蒂娃的美學觀與傳統美學概念的區別,而傳統美學概念仍然在影響著實踐、教學與藝術解讀。區別的核心在於克里斯蒂娃所提出的「語言的雙重性」觀點以及她所闡釋的身體與思想、理智與情感、生理過程與社會過程之間的關係。我們同「物體與理念」之間不期而遇之後的殘餘便是藝術的語言,這種相遇是活態的、具有感知力的;由此,藝術的語言具有一種特殊的體現價值,此種價值同遵循學術准則和既定品味標准的價值完全相悖。本書對這些主題展開了探討。
內容簡介:對於克里斯蒂娃來說,在這個充斥著便捷圖像的世界里,藝術或者審美經驗這種實踐塑造了主體(自我感知)以及客體,這個客體能夠轉換意義與感知。《克里斯蒂娃眼中的藝術》這本書檢視了克里斯蒂娃思想中的幾個關鍵概念,闡明了它們與藝術家之間的密切相關性,以及它們在解讀藝術品過程當中的應用。
埃絲特爾·巴雷特(Estelle Barrett)列舉了梵高和畢加索的畫作、當代女性主義畫家的作品、比爾·漢森(Bill Henson)的攝影作品以及范·索韋林(Van Sowerine)的動畫影片,並由此論述了克里斯蒂娃的理論是如何闡釋藝術家和藝術品之間的關係,藝術家、藝術品和觀眾之間的關係,以及藝術與知識之間的關係的。
通過這些關係,她探討了克里斯蒂娃的哪些研究可以揭示出藝術在社會當中的角色與功能,她將克里斯蒂娃的思想融會貫通,並指出了其與視覺文化之間的相關性。(克里斯蒂娃眼中的藝術;埃絲特爾·巴雷特,2020-01-18;重庆大学出版社;思想家眼中的藝術叢書,182 pages)
陳明發(舒靈)的詩〈孤獨〉
陳明發(亦筆)的詩〈所以我寫詩〉
陳明發(亦筆)的詩 1977〈傘〉
意大利都靈聖卡羅廣場〈尼采的驚悚〉
夢:私我的神話
夢:私我的神話 26 神話
40 Years Of Dance 2 直覺·時間性
40 Years Of Dance 哲學問題
Apr 30, 2024
luova ajatus
陳明發《2023關鍵詞》1
雨樹的美學,在柔風吹過時,遠遠聽來真的像雨聲。
May 2, 2024
luova ajatus
陳明發〈生態〉
我靠兩樣東西長大
純母乳過後,純文字
童年和爸爸在咖啡店
吃白麵包塗煉奶
就像許久許久才一次
讀到全彩插圖的故事
電視中的超人是黑白的
牛仔也是,各族膚色差不多
店裏吃椰漿飯的馬來人
講客家話;常把尾音捲長
土調方言聽來真新鮮
像七彩大看板豎在戲院前
比話語更清澈的驚喜
是在伐木林鑽來鑽去
看見變色龍換裝
紅與綠與藍隨意急轉
老樹上,飛鼠玩滑翔
一伸爪即逮住獵物
濃蔭下打開午飯格
鹹蛋與米飯與新翻土
純凈的味,至今翻出來
依然能召喚
兒時唸過的文字
嚐過的乳香
(9.5.2022)
(Photo by Samuel Maglione)
Apr 28
luova ajatus
89.It may also be said that God as Architect satisfies in all respects God as Lawgiver, and thus that sins must bear their penalty with them, through the order of nature, and even in virtue of the mechanical structure of things; and similarly that noble actions will attain their rewards by ways which, on the bodily side, are mechanical, although this cannot and ought not always to happen immediately.
還可以得出,作為建築師的上帝在一切方面都滿足作為立法者的上帝,因而罪惡必通過自然的秩序、乃至事物的機械結構而受到懲罰;同樣,高尚的行為在形體方面也通過機械的方式獲得獎勵,盡管這不可能也不應該經常立刻發生。
解釋:自然的物理領域和神恩的道德領域之間的前定和諧意味著,上帝並不需要去行使超自然的奇跡來懲惡揚善,神恩總是通過自然的方式表現出來,否則,上帝就成了個糟糕的鐘表匠。
90 Finally, under this perfect government no good action would be unrewarded and no bad one unpunished, and all should issue in the well-being of the good, that is to say, of those who are not malcontents in this great state, but who trust in Providence, after having done their duty, and who love and imitate, as is meet, the Author of all good, finding pleasure in the contemplation of His perfections, as is the way of genuine 『pure love,』 which takes pleasure in the happiness of the beloved. This it is which leads wise and virtuous people to devote their energies to everything which appears in harmony with the presumptive or antecedent will of God, and yet makes them content with what God actually brings to pass by His secret, consequent and positive [decisive] will, recognizing that if we could sufficiently understand the order of the universe, we should find that it exceeds all the desires of the wisest men, and that it is impossible to make it better than it is, not only as a whole and in general but also for ourselves in particular, if we are attached, as we ought to be, to the Author of all, not only as to the architect and efficient cause of our being, but as to our master and to the final cause, which ought to be the whole aim of our will, and which can alone make our happiness. (Theod. Pref. 134,ad fin., 278.)
最後,在這一完美的統治下,沒有任何善的行為不會被獎勵,沒有任何惡的行為不會被懲罰,所有這些都是為了善人的幸福,也就是說,為了那些在這一偉大國度毫無怨言、盡職責而信天命的人,那些如其所應該的那樣去熱愛並仿效那所有善的創造者、在對他的完滿性的沉思中找到快樂的人,這種從所愛對象的幸福中獲得快樂乃是真正的「純愛」之道。正是因此,賢明之士致力於與上帝的假定的、在先的意志相一致的任何事情,而滿足於上帝通過他的隱秘的、結果的和決定的意志所實際帶來的事情,他們認識到,如果人們能夠充分理解宇宙的秩序,就會發現它超出了最聰慧的人的所有期望,無論就整體一般而言,還是就我們個別而言,都不可能使它變得比現在更好,只要我們能夠如我們所應該的那樣歸附萬物的創造者,不僅歸附作為我們存在的建築師和動力因的上帝,而且歸附作為我們的主宰和目的因的上帝,他應該成為我們意志的全部目的,僅僅是他就足以使我們幸福。(參見《神正論》,前言,第134節,正文,第278節)
解釋:萊布尼茨引用了經院哲學的兩個重要術語,即上帝的假定的、在先的意志(presumptive or antecedent will)和上帝的結果的和決定(consequent and positive will)的意志。上帝的假定的、在先的意志是指上帝主觀上希望人類在各方面都得到最大的幸福;上帝的結果的和決定的意志是指由於世界和人的局限性,以及個體與個體之間、整體和部分之間還有過去、現在與將來之間必須相協調的極端複雜性,上帝在客觀上只能給予人類在現實條件制約之下的盡可能多的幸福。上帝的結果的和決定的意志不是人類的有限的理智所能夠認識和預料的,因此,賢明之士盡人事而聽天命,在行動時遵循上帝的假定的、在先的意志,為全人類的幸福而努力,無論其結果如何都欣然接受,因為這是上帝的結果的和決定的意志的體現。
萊布尼茨認為,最高的德性在於愛上帝。在他看來,愛是非功利性的,是「從所愛對象的幸福中獲得快樂」,而上帝作為最完善、最幸福的存在,最值得人去愛,也最能給人帶來幸福。愛上帝意味著我們認為他的所作所為都是最完善的,他所創造的世界是所有可能世界中最好的世界。
(莱布尼兹《單子論》,桑靖宇翻譯/註釋( 2008年初);The Monadology (1714)by Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz [1646-1716],English edition translated by Robert Latta (1898); 作者單位:武漢大學哲學學院教授,原見:百度文庫)
May 6
luova ajatus
83.Among other differences which exist between ordinary souls and minds [esprits], some of which differences I have already noted, there is also this: that souls in general are living mirrors or images of the universe of created things, but that minds are also images of the Deity or Author of nature Himself, capable of knowing the system of the universe, and to some extent of imitating it through architectonic ensamples [echantillons], each mind being like a small divinity in its own sphere. (Theod. 147.)
在普通靈魂和心靈的區別中,我對此已談到了一些①,還有這一點:即一般的靈魂是創造物的宇宙的活的鏡子或映象,而心靈則還是神或自然的創造者本身的肖像,能夠認識宇宙的秩序,並在一定程度上能通過例如建築來模仿它,每一心靈在自身領域內就像是個小神。(參見《神正論》,第147節)
① 參見《單子論》第 29 -30 節
解釋:人的心靈由於具有了理性,從而具有了某種神性,這使他不僅像其他靈魂一樣是宇宙的活鏡,更是上帝的肖像。對人的理性思維能力和實踐能力的推崇體現了萊布尼茨作為理性主義哲學家的基本特色和樂觀主義精神。值得注意的是,這與強調理性的軟弱無力的新教思想的信仰主義是恰恰相反的,盡管萊布尼茨在名義上也是新教徒。
84.It is this that enables spirits [or minds—esprits] to enter into a kind of fellowship with God, and brings it about that in relation to them He is not only what an inventor is to his machine (which is the relation of God to other created things), but also what a prince is to his subjects, and, indeed, what a father is to his children.
正是這一點使得精神或心靈進入到一種與上帝的伙伴關係,使得上帝與他們的關係不僅僅是發明家與他的機器的關係(上帝與其他創造物的關係正是如此),而且還是君主與其臣民的關係,甚至還是父親與其子女的關係。
解釋:托馬斯·阿奎那認為人可以與上帝形成一種友愛關係,但前提是必須信仰道成肉身的耶穌,從而能分有神性。但在萊布尼茨看來,人與上帝的伙伴關係基於人具有理性這一點就足夠了,不需要信仰或奇跡的因素。這充分地表現了萊布尼茨理性神學中的人本主義色彩。
85. Whence it is easy to conclude that the totality [assemblage] of all spirits [esprits] must compose the City of God, that is to say, the most perfect State that is possible, under the most perfect of Monarchs. (Theod. 146; Abrege, Object. 2.)
由此很容易得出,所有精神的全體必構成了上帝之城,也就是說,在最完美的君主統治之下的盡可能最完美的國度。(參見《神正論》,第146節,節略,異議2)
解釋:奧古斯丁的「上帝之城」指的是與世俗社會相對而言的基督徒的教會,萊布尼茨的「上帝之城」則是指與自然界相對的整個人類社會(再加上天使等理性靈魂)。這表明萊布尼茨晚年的理性神學已突破傳統基督教的局限,而達到真正意義上的普世性。
86. This City of God, this truly universal monarchy, is a moral world in the natural world, and is the most exalted and most divine among the works of God; and it is in it that the glory of God really consists, for He would have no glory were not His greatness and His goodness known and admired by spirits [esprits]. It is also in relation to this divine City that God specially has goodness, while His wisdom and His power are manifested everywhere.
這一上帝之城,這一真正的普遍王國,是自然世界中的道德世界,是上帝的作品中最崇高、最神聖的部分;上帝的榮耀正在於此,因為如果上帝的偉大和善如果不為精神所認識和崇敬的話,那他就沒有榮耀可言。也正是在與這一神聖之城的關系中,上帝才特別具有了善,而他的智慧和力量則無處不在。
解釋:沒有人類社會的話,上帝的榮耀和善就無處體現。萊布尼茨的這一思想有著濃厚的人類中心論的色彩,當代的很多環境主義者、動物保護主義者恐怕不會喜歡。
87. As we have shown above that there is a perfect harmony between the two realms in nature, one of efficient, and the other of final causes, we should here notice also another harmony between the physical realm of nature and the moral realm of grace, that is to say, between God, considered as Architect of the mechanism [machine] of the universe and God considered as Monarch of the divine City of spirits [esprits]. (Theod. 62, 74, 112, 118, 130, 247,248.)
如上所示,在自然的兩個領域之間,即動力因的領域和目的因的領域之間,存在著完美的和諧,我們還應該注意到自然的物理領域和神恩的道德領域之間的另一種和諧,也就是說,作為宇宙機器的建築師的上帝和作為精神的神聖之城的君主的上帝之間的和諧。(參見《神正論》,第62節, 第74節,第112節, 第118節, 第130節, 第247節, 第248節)
May 7
luova ajatus
78.These principles have given me a way of explaining naturally the union or rather the mutual agreement [conformite] of the soul and the organic body. The soul follows its own laws, and the body likewise follows its own laws; and they agree with each other in virtue of the pre-established harmony between all substances, since they are all representations of one and the same universe. (Theod. Pref. 340, 352, 353, 358.)
這些原理給予我一種方法,可以自然地解釋靈魂和有機形體之間的結合或一致。靈魂遵循自身的法則,形體也遵循自身的法則;憑借所有實體間的前定和諧,兩者之間能夠協調一致,因為它們都是同一宇宙的表象。(參見《神正論》前言,第340節, 第352節,第353節, 第358節)
79. Souls act according to the laws of final causes through appetitions, ends, and means. Bodies act according to the laws of efficient causes or motions. And the two realms, that of efficient causes and that of final causes, are in harmony with one another.
靈魂按照目的因通過欲求、目的和手段的法則而活動。形體依據動力因的或運動的法則而活動。這兩個領域,目的因的領域和動力因的領域,是彼此協調的。
80. Descartes recognized that souls cannot impart any force to bodies, because there is always the same quantity of force in matter. Nevertheless he was of opinion that the soul could change the direction of bodies. But that is because in his time it was not known that there is a law of nature which affirms also the conservation of the same total direction in matter. Had Descartes noticed this he would have come upon my system of pre-established harmony. (Theod. Pref. 22, 59-61, 63, 66, 345-348, 354, 355.)
笛卡爾認識到,靈魂不可能給予力量於形體,因為在物質中力保持相同的數量。然而他卻認為,靈魂可以改變形體的方向。但這是因為在他的時代,物質中運動方向的守恆這一自然律尚不為人所知。如果笛卡爾知道這一點,他一定會贊同我的前定和諧體系。(參見《神正論》前言,第22節, 第59-61節,第63節,第66節,第345-348節,第354節,第355節)
解釋:笛卡爾一方面把形體與靈魂割裂開來,另一方面又試圖想辦法使其相連系,以解釋身心互動的經驗事實。他認為,盡管靈魂不可能改變形體運動的數量,因為物質中運動量是守恆的,但靈魂可以通過大腦中的松果腺的中介而改變形體的運動方向。與之針鋒相對,萊布尼茨認為,不僅物質運動的數量是守恆的,而且其運動的方向也是守恆的,從而物質運動完全是自足的,不需要也不允許靈魂的干預。通過將笛卡爾的動量守恆定律改造成動力守恆定律,萊布尼茨為其前定和諧理論提供了物理學的基礎。
81. According to this system bodies act as if (to suppose the impossible) there were no souls, and souls act as if there were no bodies, and both act as if each influenced the other.
根據這一體系,形體就像不具有靈魂那樣(這當然是不可能的)活動,靈魂就像不擁有形體那樣活動,這兩者就像能相互影響那樣活動。
解釋:後來的笛卡爾主義者如馬勒布朗士等,放棄了笛卡爾的困難重重的身心直接相關聯的理論,提出了「偶因論」(occasionalism)來解釋身心關係。他們認為,靈魂和身體之間不存在真正的因果關係和相互作用,只是由於上帝的隨時干預,才使得身心之間保持協調一致。
萊布尼茨的前定和諧理論與偶因論有相同的地方,即都認為身心間不可能有真正的關聯;兩者的不同在於,偶因論依賴於上帝的隨時干預來保持身心間的協調,前定和諧理論則認為,上帝之在創始之初規定形體的規律與靈魂的規律協調一致,此後上帝就不再進行任何干預了。萊布尼茨認為,偶因論者實際上把上帝變成了個糟糕的鐘表匠,需要不斷的調整,才能讓他所造的形體和靈魂這兩塊表保持時間的一致。
第九部分 上帝之城 (第82節—即90節)
82. As regards minds [esprits] or rational souls, though I find that what I have just been saying is true of all living beings and animals (namely that animals and souls come into being when the world begins and no more come to an end that the world does), yet there is this peculiarity in rational animals, that their spermatic animalcules, so long as they are only spermatic, have merely ordinary or sensuous [sensitive] souls; but when those which are chosen [elus], so to speak, attain to human nature through an actual conception, their sensuous souls are raised to the rank of reason and to the prerogative of minds [esprits]. (Theod. 91, 397.)
至於心靈或理性靈魂,盡管我覺得我剛才所說的適用於所有的生物和動物(即動物和靈魂與宇宙同始同終),然而理性靈魂有其特殊性,即他們微小的精子動物,就他們是精子而言,就只具有普通的或感性的靈魂;但當那些被選中的小動物通過實際的受孕而獲得人性時,它們的感性靈魂就被提升到理性的層面,獲得了心靈的特權。(參見《神正論》,第91節, 第397節)
May 8
luova ajatus
73.It also follows from this that there never is absolute birth [generation] nor complete death, in the strict sense, consisting in the separation of the soul from the body. What we call births [generations] are developments and growths, while what we call deaths are envelopments and diminutions.
由此還可知,不會有嚴格意義上的絕對的生,或就靈魂脫離形體而言的完全的死。我們所謂的生是指發展和成長,而我們所謂的死是指封藏和縮減。
解釋:受宗教思想影響的人常傾向於認為,生是靈魂與形體的結合,死是靈魂與形體的分離,萊布尼茨對此不以為然。他認為,靈魂由於自身的有限性而必然要與形體永遠相結合,這樣一來,生與死不過是形體在顯著狀態與不顯著狀態之間的變化而已。就靈魂本身而言,生與死不過是知覺的某種在有意識與無意識之間的轉化(參見《單子論》第21節)。
74.Philosophers have been much perplexed about the origin of forms, entelechies, or souls; but nowadays it has become known, through careful studies of plants, insects, and animals, that the organic bodies of nature are never products of chaos or putrefaction, but always come from seeds, in which there was undoubtedly some preformation; and it is held that not only the organic body was already there before conception, but also a soul in this body, and, in short, the animal itself; and that by means of conception this animal has merely been prepared for the great transformation involved in its becoming an animal of another kind. Something like this is indeed seen apart from birth [generation], as when worms become flies and caterpillars become butterflies. (Theod. Pref.86,89, 90, 187, 188, 397,403.)
哲學家們曾對形式、隱得來希或靈魂的起源大惑不解;但現在人們通過對植物、昆蟲和動物的仔細考察已經知道,自然界的有機形體絕非混沌或腐化的產物,而總是源於精子,在其中無疑存在著某種預成(preformation);經認定,不僅有機形體在受孕之前已經在那里,而且有靈魂在形體中,總之,動物自身已經存在了;通過受孕,這一動物僅僅是為巨大的變形作准備,以成為另一種動物。人們還可在在生殖之外看到類似的事情,例如蠕蟲變成蒼蠅,毛蟲化為蝴蝶。(參見《神正論》前言,第86節, 第89節,第90節, 第187節,第188節,第397節,第403節)
解釋:萊布尼茨用當時生物學中的「預成論」來為自己的生命體的連續性思想提供經驗的證明。與當時流行的生物的靈魂源於無機物(混沌或腐化)不同,「預成論」根據顯微鏡的觀察結果提出,生命體的成熟形態在精子階段就已經預先形成了,只不過被縮小了很多倍。
75.The animals, of which some are raised by means of conception to the rank of larger animals, may be called spermatic, but those among them which are not so raised but remain in their own kind (that is, the majority) are born, multiply, and are destroyed like the large animals, and it is only a few chosen ones [elus] that pass to a greater theatre.
這些動物,其中的一些通過受孕而上升到大動物之列,被稱為精子動物,但它們中的那些沒有上升而仍保持原樣的(即絕大多數)像大動物一樣誕生、繁衍和死亡,只有少數被選中的才走上一個更大的舞台。
76.But this is only half of the truth, and accordingly I hold that if an animal never comes into being by natural means
77. Thus it may be said that not only the soul (mirror of an indestructible universe) is indestructible, but also the animal itself, though its mechanism [machine] may often perish in part and take off or put on an organic slough [des depouilles organiques].
由此可知,不僅靈魂(不可毀滅的宇宙的一面鏡子)是不可毀滅的,動物自身也是如此,盡管它的機體常常部分消亡,並脫去或獲得有機的外殼。
第九部分 身心關係 (第78節—第81節)
May 14
luova ajatus
第八節·複合實體(生命體)的變化(第71節──第77節)
71.But it must not be imagined, as has been done by some who have misunderstood my thought, that each soul has a quantity or portion of matter belonging exclusively to itself or attached to it for ever, and that it consequently owns other inferior living beings, which are devoted for ever to its service. For all bodies are in a perpetual flux like rivers, and parts are entering into them and passing out of them continually.
但不能像某些誤解我思想的人那樣去設想,每一靈魂都擁有專屬於它自己,或永遠附著於它的一塊或一份物質,並且它就因此而擁有了永遠服務於它的其他低級生物。因為一切形體都處於像河流一樣的永恆變遷之中,不斷地有些部分進入和離開它們。
解釋:由於與靈魂的密切關係,形體雖然具有了某種統一性,但這種統一性是不純粹的,不可能像單子那樣具有不受外界影響的絕對的獨立性和自足性。在與外界的直接的相互作用中,形體不斷地與外界進行著物質交換。
72. Thus the soul changes its body only by degrees, little by little, so that it is never all at once deprived of all its organs; and there is often metamorphosis in animals, but never metempsychosis or transmigration of souls; nor are there souls entirely separate [from bodies] nor unembodied spirits [genies sans corps]. God alone is completely without body. (Theod. 90, 124.)
因而,靈魂只是逐漸地、一點點地改變其形體,從而決不會突然失去其所有器官;在動物中只有形態的改變,而絕沒有輪回或靈魂的遷移;也不存在完全脫離形體的靈魂或無形體的精神。只有上帝才完全沒有形體。(參見《神正論》第90節, 第124節)
May 14
luova ajatus
66.Whence it appears that in the smallest particle of matter there is a world of creatures, living beings, animals, entelechies, souls.
由此可知,在物質的最小的微粒中也有一個生物--有機體、動物、隱得來希和靈魂--的世界。①
解釋:這兩節進一步說明了生物形體的有機性。在這里整體與部分的統一性從形體與其部分擴展到形體與宇宙,從而形體的任一微小的部分都有一個生物的世界,而不僅僅是一個生物。
這兩節看上去似乎是泛指物質而言,即包括生物的形體也包括無機物。但這樣解釋的話邏輯上會遇到困難,因為無機物的部分和整體之間雖然可以通過力學定律相影響,但不存在著有機的統一關係。
67. Each portion of matter may be conceived as like a garden full of plants and like a pond full of fishes. But each branch of every plant, each member(orga n)of every animal, each drop of its liquid parts is also some such garden or pond.
物質的每一部分都可被視為是一個長滿植物的花園,或一個充滿著魚的池塘。而植物的每一枝條、動物的每一肢體以及它的體液的每一滴,都也是這樣的花園或池塘。
68. And though the earth and the air which are between the plants of the garden, or the water which is between the fish of the pond, be neither plant nor fish; yet they also contain plants and fishes, but mostly so minute as to be imperceptible to us.
盡管花園中的植物之間的土壤和空氣,或者池塘里的魚之間的水,不是植物或魚,但它們也包含了植物和魚,只是通常極為細微而不為我們所覺察。
解釋:在萊布尼茨看來,土壤、空氣、水雖然自身並不是有生命的有機體,但卻包含了無數微小的生物,當時剛發現不久的顯微鏡被萊布尼茨視為對他的理論提供了很好的說明。這樣一來,整個世界就都充滿了生命,沒有一個地方不具有有機性。
從另一個角度看,按照萊布尼茨的理論,既然現實世界是所有可能世界中最完滿的,而且生命體比無機物具有更高的完滿性,那麼上帝就沒有理由不使整個自然界都具有有機性。
69. Thus there is nothing fallow, nothing sterile, nothing dead in the universe, no chaos, no confusion save in appearance, somewhat as it might appear to be in a pond at a distance, in which one would see a confused movement and, as it were, a swarming of fish in the pond, without separately distinguishing the fish themselves. (Theod. Pref. [E. 475 b; 477 b; G. vi. 40, 44].)
因而,在宇宙中沒有任何荒蕪的、貧瘠的或死亡的東西,沒有任何混沌和混亂,除了表面現象之外。有些像遠處的池塘所顯現的那樣,人們只能遠遠看到魚的群集和混亂的運動,而不能看清魚本身。(參見《神正論》,前言,[E. 475 b; 477 b; G. vi. 40, 44])
解釋:在承認世界的有機性的同時,萊布尼茨並未否定世界的機械性,只是認為機械性是現象性的,世界的本質則在於有機性。
70. Hence it appears that each living body has a dominant entelechy, which in an animal is the soul; but the members of this living body are full of other living beings, plants, animals, each of which has also its dominant entelechy or soul.
由此可知,每一個活的形體都有一個主導性的隱得來希,在動物中則是靈魂;但這一活的形體的肢體中充滿了別的生物、植物、動物,它們中的每一個又有自己的主導性的隱得來希或靈魂。
解釋:值得注意的是,萊布尼茨雖然認為真正的個體是精神性的單子,但現實的個體(除了上帝之外)卻總是複合性的,是由單子與形體構成的生命體,萊布尼茨又稱此為複合實體(compound substance)。由於形體的無限可分性,在每一複合實體的內部都存在著無數的層面,每一層面都充滿了各種生命的小宇宙,是對大宇宙的映射。
萊布尼茨似乎沒有嚴格區別複合實體與複合物(compound),但兩者的所指應該有所不同。複合實體指形體與靈魂組成生命體,有著顯著的個體性和有機性;而複合物一般指有廣延的物質,盡管萊布尼茨最終認為一切物質都充滿了生命。
May 15
luova ajatus
63.The body belonging to a Monad (which is its entelechy or its soul) constitutes along with the entelechy what may be called a living being, and along with the soul what is called an animal. Now this body of living being or of an animal is always organic; for, as every Monad is, in its own way, a mirror of the universe, and as the universe is ruled according to a perfect order, there must also be order in that which represents it, i.e. in the perceptions of the soul, and consequently there must be order in the body, through which the universe is represented in the soul. (Theod. 403.)
形體附屬於單子,而單子是其隱得來希或靈魂,形體和隱得來希一起構成了生物,和靈魂一起構成了動物。生物或動物的形體總是有機的,因為每一單子以自身的方式是宇宙的一面活的鏡子,而宇宙又為完美的秩序所統御,那麼在表象它的東西中,也就是靈魂的知覺中,必定也存在著秩序,從而在形體中,通過它宇宙被表象於靈魂,也存在著秩序。(參見《神正論》第403節)
解釋:單子的形體與普通的複合物(如一塊石頭)不同,形體是為單子所統一起來的,而石頭則是被力學定律所聚集在一起。單子之中包含了宇宙(無數單子所組成的系列)的完美秩序,當單子在賦予形體以統一性的時候,這種完美秩序也在某種程度上被賦予形體,從而形體具有了有機性,而不僅僅是量的聚集。
64.Thus the organic body of each living being is a kind of divine machine or natural automaton, which infinitely surpasses all artificial automata. For a machine made by the skill of man is not a machine in each of its parts. For instance, the tooth of a brass wheel has parts or fragments which for us are not artificial products, and which do not have the special characteristics of the machine, for they give no indication of the use for which the wheel was intended. But the machines of nature, namely, living bodies, are still machines in their smallest parts ad infinitum. It is this that constitutes the difference between nature and art, that is to say, between the divine art and ours. (Theod. 134, 146, 194, 403.)
因而,每一生物的有機形體都是一個神聖的機器,或一台無限地優越於任何人造的自動機器的自然的自動機器。因為人的技藝所制造的機器的每一部分並非機器。例如黃銅齒輪的齒的部分或斷片對我們而言就不再是人造物,它們不具有機器的特征,因為它們不能表現出齒輪的用途。而自然的機器,即有機體,在其無限小的部分仍是機器。這正是自然與技藝之間、也就是說神的技藝與我們的技藝之間的區別所在。(參見《神正論》第134節, 第146節,第194節, 第403節)
解釋:與早期近代哲學中把形體視為機器的機械論觀點不同,萊布尼茨認為生物的形體是神聖的機器即上帝造的機器,完全不同於人造的機器。在形體中,部分與整體互相關聯,以致無限小的部分仍表現出整個神聖機器的特性和功能。形體的這種有機的部分與整體的統一性來源於起在生物中主導作用的單子,因為單子是多中之一,在自身中容納了整個宇宙,當單子與形體結合時,就把這種有機性賦予了形體。
65.And the Author of nature has been able to employ this divine and infinitely wonderful power of art, because each portion of matter is not only infinitely divisible, as the ancients observed, but is also actually subdivided without end, each part into further parts, of which each has some motion of its own; otherwise it would be impossible for each portion of matter to express the whole universe. (Theod. Prelim., Disc. 70, and 195.)
自然的創造者能夠運用這一神聖的和無比神奇的技藝能力,因為物質的每一部分不僅是無限可分的,如古人所觀察的那樣,而且實際上可以無止境地再分割,每一部分都可分為更小的部分,而任一部分都有其自身的運動;否則,物質的每一部分就不可能反映整個宇宙了。(參見《神正論》,導論,第70節, 第195節)
May 29
luova ajatus
61.And compounds are in this respect analogous with [symbolisent avec] simple substances. For all is a plenum and thus all matter is connected together and in the plenum every motion has an effect upon distant bodies in proportion to their distance, so that each body not only is affected by those which are in contact with it and in some way feels the effect of everything that happens to them, but also is mediately affected by bodies adjoining those with which it itself is in immediate contact. Wherefore it follows that this inter-communication of things extends to any distance, however great. And consequently every body feels the effect of all that takes place in the universe, so that he who sees all might read in each what is happening everywhere, and even what has happened or shall happen, observing in the present that which is far off as well in time as in place: sympnoia panta, as Hippocrates said. But a soul can read in itself only that which is there represented distinctly; it cannot all at once unroll everything that is enfolded in it, for its complexity is infinite.
複合物在這一方面類似於單純實體。既然一切都是充實的,所有的物體就都相互聯系在一起,在充實之中,每一運動對於遙遠的物體都能產生與其距離相對應的影響,因而每一物體不僅受與它相接觸的物體影響,以某種方式感受到發生在他們身上的一切事情,而且受與它直接接觸的物體相鄰近之物的間接影響。由此可知,這種事物間的相互交往延伸到無限遙遠的距離。因為,每一物體都能感受到所有發生在宇宙中的事情的效果,從而,洞察一切的人能在每一事物中看到各處所發生的事,甚至那些已經發生的或將要發生的,能在當下看到那些時間上和空間上甚為遙遠的事情。正如希波克拉底①所說的,sympnoia panta(萬物相通)。但靈魂在自身中只能看到那些被清晰表象的東西;而不能立刻打開封藏在自身中的所有東西,因為其繁復性是無窮的。
① 希波克拉底 ,約公元前 460460460-約公元前 約公元前 370, 370, 370, 370, 370, 古希臘 名醫, 被稱為醫藥之父 。
解釋:由這一節起,萊布尼茨開始集中談論有形體、廣延的自然界。在自然界中萬事萬物是互相聯系、互相影響的,因為自然是一個充實,沒有虛空的隔離,一個事物的運動、變化必通過力學定律傳導到所有地方。這種現象界的普遍聯系與本體界的單子之間的普遍聯系是非常不同的:前者是通過力學定律的外部影響,後者則是基於每個單子內部都包含了與所有其他單子的關係。
既然宇宙在本質上是無數的精神性的單子,那麼有廣延的自然界從何而來呢?這恐怕是萊布尼茨哲學中最困難的問題之一。《單子論》第二節中說「複合物只是單純物的集合或堆積」,這顯然不能從字面上去理解,因為無廣延的單子無論如何堆積也堆不出有廣延的物質。筆者認為,可通過萊布尼茨的表象理論或知覺理論對物質世界的形成作出較合理的解釋。如前所說,每個單子都表象著或知覺著所有的單子,由於單子知覺的有限性和含混性,在其知覺或表象中就不可避免地存在著某種扭曲和變形,這樣一來,原本無廣延的單子世界就被表象為或構造成有廣延的物質世界了。這種表象出物質世界的混亂的知覺應該處於無意識的層面,這樣,物質世界就獨立於人和動物的意識而獲得其自在性,是「有著良好基礎的現象」(well-founded phenomena)。
這種表象理論的解釋還可以為萊布尼茨的物質是單子的堆積的說法提供某種說明。既然物質世界是被無意識的混亂知覺所表象出的現象,其本質是無數的單子,在某種比喻的、不嚴格的意義上,我們可以說「物質是單子的堆積」。更貼切一些的比喻說法應該是「無數的單子被無意識的混亂知覺堆集成有廣延的物質世界」。
62. Thus, although each created Monad represents the whole universe, it represents more distinctly the body which specially pertains to it, and of which it is the entelechy; and as this body expresses the whole universe through the connexion of all matter in the plenum, the soul also represents the whole universe in representing this body, which belongs to it in a special way. (Theod. 400.)
盡管每一個被創造的單子都表象整個宇宙,但它表象特別屬於它的、以它為隱得來希的形體更為清晰;由於這一形體通過與在充實中的所有物體的聯系而反映整個宇宙,靈魂也通過表象這一以特別的方式屬於它的形體而表象整個宇宙。(參見《神正論》第400節)
解釋:從邏輯的角度來分析,單子的形態可分為三個階段,第一,單子最本源的形態是純精神的實體。第二,由於單子的無意識的知覺的混亂的表象作用,物質世界產生出來與單子相對。第三,為了更好地表象物質世界,單子通過與某些物質緊密聯系以具有軀體或形體,從而成為現實的個體或複合的實體。這三個階段只是邏輯意義上的,並不表示單子在時間中現實地經歷了三個階段。
Jun 3
luova ajatus
58.And by this means there is obtained as great variety as possible, along with the greatest possible order; that is to say, it is the way to get as much perfection as possible. (Theod. 120, 124, 241, 214-243, 275.)
這就是獲得最大可能的多樣性同時又具有最大可能的秩序的方法;也就是說,它是獲得最大可能的完滿性的方法。(參見《神正論》第120節, 第124節,第241節, 第241-243節, 第275節)
解釋:「多樣性」與「秩序」是「完滿性」的不可或缺的兩個方面。僅有「多樣性」世界會一片混亂,僅有「秩序」世界會非常單調。在萊布尼茨看來,現實世界只有同時具有最大可能的「多樣性」與「秩序」,才是最完滿的,才能顯示出作為建築師的上帝的無比偉大。
59.Besides, no hypothesis but this (which I venture to call proved) fittingly exalts the greatness of God; and this Monsieur Bayle recognized when, in his Dictionary (article Rorarius), he raised objections to it, in which indeed he was inclined to think that I was attributing too much to God—more than it is possible to attribute. But he was unable to give any reason which could show the impossibility of this universal harmony, according to which every substance exactly expresses all others through the relations it has with them.
此外,唯有這一假設(我冒昧地認為它已獲得證明)才能恰當地贊美上帝的偉大;貝爾先生在他的辭典(「羅拉留」辭條)中提出反對意見時意識到了這一點,實際上他傾向於認為,我歸於上帝的太多了——超過了可能被歸於的。但他找不出任何理由來反對這種普遍的和諧,據此每一單子都通過它所具有的與所有其他單子的關係來確切地反映它們。
60.Further, in what I have just said there may be seen the reasons a priori why things could not be otherwise than they are. For God in regulating the whole has had regard to each part, and in particular to each Monad, whose nature being to represent, nothing can confine it to the representing of only one part of things; though it is true that this representation is merely confused as regards the variety of particular things [le detail] in the whole universe, and can be distinct only as regards a small part of things, namely, those which are either nearest or greatest in relation to each of the Monads; otherwise each Monad would be a deity. It is not as regards their object, but as regards the different ways in which they have knowledge of their object, that the Monads are limited. In a confused way they all strive after the infinite, the whole; but they are limited and differentiated through the degrees of their distinct perceptions.
進而,在我剛才所說的話中,可找到為什麼事物不可能是其他情形的先天理由。因為在上帝規定整體的時候必須考慮到部分,尤其是要考慮到每一單子。單子的本質既然在於表象,那就沒什麼能限制它只表象一部分事物;盡管這種表象在相關於整個宇宙的繁多的特殊事物時確實是混亂的,而只在相關於很小的一部分事物時是清晰的,即那些與它最接近或關係最大的事物;否則單子就會是神了。單子之受限制,不在於單子的對象,而在於認識對象的方式。他們都以混亂的方式追求著無限和全體;但他們因自身的知覺的清晰程度而受限制和相區別。
解釋:值得注意的是,由於單子沒有可供外物出入的窗戶,嚴格地說,單子並不表象外物。但由於小宇宙與大宇宙之間的和諧一致,單子之表現自身也就是在表象宇宙了。由於單子的有限性,它對宇宙的表象必然是存在著不同程度的混亂,只有上帝才能完全清晰地表象宇宙。
第七部分 有機的自然觀 (第61節-第70節)
Jun 5
luova ajatus
52.Accordingly, among created things, activities and passivities are mutual. For God, comparing two simple substances, finds in each reasons which oblige Him to adapt the other to it, and consequently what is active in certain respects is passive from another point of view; active in so far as what we distinctly know in it serves to explain [rendre raison de] what takes place in another, and passive in so far as the explanation [raison] of what takes place in it is to be found in that which is distinctly known in another. (Theod. 66.)
因而,在創造物中能動與被動是相互的。當上帝比較兩個單純實體時,在每一個中都發現迫使他使另一個適應於它的理由,因而從一個角度看是主動的東西,從另一角度看則是被動的;它是主動的,是就我們在其中清晰地知道能夠解釋在另一實體中所發生的事而言,說它是被動的,是就在其中所發生的事的解釋須在我們於另一實體中所清晰地知道的東西中尋求而言。(參見《神正論》第66節)
53. Now, as in the Ideas of God there is an infinite number of possible universes, and as only one of them can be actual, there must be a sufficient reason for the choice of God, which leads Him to decide upon one rather than another. (Theod. 8, 10, 44, 173, 196-199,225, 414-416.)
既然在上帝的觀念中具有無限多的可能世界,而只有其中之一才能成為現實的,那麼上帝的選擇就必須有一個充足理由,以使他選擇這一個而不是另一個。(參見《神正論》第8節,第10節,第44節,第173節,第196-199節,第225節,第414-416節)
54. And this reason can be found only in the fitness [convenance], or in the degrees of perfection, that these worlds possess, since each possible thing has the right to aspire to existence in proportion to the amount of perfection it contains in germ. (Theod. 74, 130,167, 201, 345-347,350,352,354.)
這一理由只能在這些世界所擁有的合適性或完滿性的程度中尋找,因為每一可能事物都有權要求與它所擁有的完滿性的多少相適應的存在。(參見《神正論》第74節,第130節,第167節,第201節,第345-347節,第350節,第352節,第345節)
55. Thus the actual existence of the best that wisdom makes known to God is due to this, that His goodness makes Him choose it, and His power makes Him produce it. (Theod. 8, 78, 80, 84, 119, 204, 206, 208. Abrege, Object. 1 and 8.)
也正因此,智慧使上帝認識到最佳者的實際存在,上帝的善使他選擇它,上帝的力量則使他產生它。(參見《神正論》第8節, 第78節, 第80節, 第84節, 第119節,第204節,第206節,第208節;節略,異議1,異議8)
56. Now this connexion or adaptation of all created things to each and of each to all, means that each simple substance has relations which express all the others, and, consequently, that it is a perpetual living mirror of the universe. (Theod. 130, 360.)
這種所有創造物與每一創造物的聯系或適應,以及每一創造物對所有創造物的聯系和適應,意味著每一單純實體都具有表現所有其他單子的關係,因而,它是宇宙的一面永恆的活的鏡子。(參見《神正論》第130節, 第360節)
解釋:單子「是宇宙的一面永恆的活的鏡子」並不是說單子實際上表象著宇宙,而是說一個單子的與其他單子的和諧性,使其自身內部包含有所有與其他單子的關係,就好像在表象整個宇宙似的。也就是說,由於單子沒有窗戶,它只能表現自身。但由於單子包含了整個宇宙的關係,它自身就是個無比深邃的小宇宙,所以單子之表現自身也就是像在表象著宇宙。
57. And as the same town, looked at from various sides, appears quite different and becomes as it were numerous in aspects [perspectivement]; even so, as a result of the infinite number of simple substances, it is as if there were so many different universes, which, nevertheless are nothing but aspects [perspectives] of a single universe, according to the special point of view of each Monad. (Theod. 147.)
正如同一城市從不同角度去看,會顯得非常不同,好像因視角的不同而變成了許多城市;同理,由於有著無數多的單純實體,就好像有無數不同的宇宙,而這不過是從每一單子的獨特視角來觀看同一宇宙所產生的不同景觀。(參見《神正論》第147節)
Jun 8
luova ajatus
因而只有上帝才是最高的統一或原初的單純實體,所有的被創造的或派生的單子都是其產物,也就是說,通過上帝的一剎那一剎那的連續閃耀而產生,為創造物的接受性所限制,按其本質而言創造物是有限的。(參見《神正論》第382-391節,第398節,第395節)
① 波瓦雷(Pierre Poiret),1646-1719,法國加爾文教牧師,定居於德國。他開始是笛卡爾主義者,後來受雅各·波墨影響成為宗教神秘主義者。譯者注17
解釋:新柏拉圖主義者喜歡用太陽散發出光芒來比喻神與萬物之間的關係,受此影響,萊布尼茨用閃電的連續閃耀來比喻上帝與萬物的關係。但萊布尼茨的「連續閃耀」很容易被誤解成笛卡爾的「連續創造」(continual creation)理論:即上帝在每一剎那都在重新創造萬事萬物。萊布尼茨此處的表述不夠嚴謹,實際上他的意思是指,上帝在創造萬物之後,仍然不斷地支撐或維系著萬物的存在,就像閃電不但產生了光亮,還通過其連續閃耀而維持光亮的存在。因為按照萊布尼茨的理論,上帝在創世之後就任憑事物按照他在創世之初所賦予的原則獨立活動,而不再另行干預了。笛卡爾的那種上帝不斷創造世界、不斷干預世界的理論在萊布尼茨看來無疑於把上帝視為一個糟糕的鐘表匠,要通過不斷地調自己制造出來的鐘表才能使時間走凖。
為什麼事物在被創造之後還需要上帝來維持其存在呢?我想萊布尼茨會這麼回答:觀念或本質是不包含存在的,存在完全是上帝的意志的賜予,如果上帝不以某種方式維持事物的存在,那麼他們就會喪失其現實存在而返回到可能世界之中。
48.In God there is Power, which is the source of all, also Knowledge, whose content is the variety of the ideas, and finally Will, which makes changes or products according to the principle of the best. (Theod. 7, 149, 150.) These characteristics correspond to what in the created Monads forms the ground or basis, to the faculty of Perception and to the faculty of Appetition. But in God these attributes are absolutely infinite or perfect; and in the created Monads or the Entelechies (or perfectihabiae, as Hermolaus Barbarus translated the word) there are only imitations of these attributes, according to the degree of perfection of the Monad. (Theod. 87.)
在上帝中有力量,它是萬物的源泉,還有知識,其內容是觀念的細節,最後還有意志,它根據最佳者原則來改變或產生事物。(參見《神正論》第7節,第149節,第150節)這些特性相應於被創造的單子中的構成其主體或基礎 ①的東西、知覺能力和欲求能力。但在上帝中這些屬性是絕對無限或完滿的;而在被創造的單子或隱得來希(或「具有完滿性者」,如赫莫勞斯·巴勃魯斯 ②所譯)中所存在的,只是根據單子的完滿性程度,對這些屬性的模仿。(參見《神正論》第87節)
第六部分 單子間的關係(第49節—第60節)
49. A created thing is said to act outwardly in so far as it has perfection, and to suffer [or be passive, patir] in relation to another, in so far as it is imperfect. Thus activity [action] is attributed to a Monad, in so far as it has distinct perceptions, and passivity [passion] in so far as its perceptions are confused. (Theod. 32, 66, 386.)
就創造物具有完善性而言,它被認為是向外作用,就其是不完善的而言,它與他物的關係是承受性的或消極的。因而,就單子具有清晰的知覺而言,它具有積極性(活動),就其知覺是混亂的而言,它具有消極性(情感)。(參見《神正論》第32節,第66節,第386節)
50. And one created thing is more perfect than another, in this, that there is found in the more perfect that which serves to explain a priori what takes place in the less perfect, and it is on this account that the former is said to act upon the latter.
一個創造物之所以比另一個更完滿在於,在更完滿之物中能找到可先驗地解釋發生在較不完滿之物中的事情的理由,也正因此,前者被認為是作用於後者。
51. But in simple substances the influence of one Monad upon another is only ideal, and it can have its effect only through the mediation of God, in so far as in the ideas of God any Monad rightly claims that God, in regulating the others from the beginning of things, should have regard to it. For since one created Monad cannot have any physical influence upon the inner being of another, it is only by this means that the one can be dependent upon the other. (Theod. 9, 54, 65, 66, 201. Abrege, Object. 3.)
但在單純實體中,一個單子對另一單子的影響僅是觀念性的,只有通過上帝的中介才能發生效果,因為在上帝的觀念中,每一單子都有權要求,上帝在萬物之初規定其他單子的時候應該關注到它。既然一個被創造的單子不能對另一單子的內部存在具有任何物理的影響,那麼只有憑借這一方式一個單子才能依賴於另一單子。(參見《神正論》第9節, 第54節, 第65節, 第66節, 第201節;節略,異議3)
解釋:單子既然沒有可供外物出入的窗戶,單子間的相互作用就不可能是現實的,而只能是觀念性的:即每個單子都獨立的運動、變化,而彼此之間卻能夠保持一種協調性和一致性,顯得好像在相互作用似的。單子之間之所以能夠彼此協調,是由於上帝在創世之初的預先安排。在萊布尼茨看來,只有使一個單子與其它的所有單子保持和諧一致,才能使現實世界具有最高的完滿性和實在性。這就是他的「前定和諧」理論。
Jun 9
luova ajatus
45.Thus God alone (or the necessary Being) has this prerogative that He must necessarily exist, if He is possible. And as nothing can interfere with the possibility of that which involves no limits, no negation and consequently no contradiction, this [His possibility] is sufficient of itself to make known the existence of God a priori. We have thus proved it, through the reality of eternal truths. But a little while ago we proved it also a posteriori, since there exist contingent beings, which can have their final or sufficient reason only in the necessary Being, which has the reason of its existence in itself.
因而只有上帝(或必然存在)才具有這一特權,即只要他是可能的就必然存在。既然什麼都不可能妨礙那不包含限制、否定,從而不包含矛盾的東西的可能性,這種可能性自身就足以先天地證明上帝的存在。我們曾通過永恆真理的實在性來證明上帝的存在(第43節)。而不久前我們也後天地對此進行了證明(第38節),因為存在著偶然的事物,它們的最後的或充足的理由只能在必然存在之中,而必然存在則在自身中有其存在的理由。
解釋:萊布尼茨在此提到了對上帝存在的三種證明,前兩種是先天的,即本體論證明和基於永恆真理的實在性的證明,第三種是後天的,即基於充足理由律的證明。
46. We must not, however, imagine, as some do, that eternal truths, being dependent on God, are arbitrary and depend on His will, as Descartes, and afterwards M. Poiret, appear to have held. That is true only of contingent truths, of which the principle is fitness [convenance] or choice of the best, whereas necessary truths depend solely on His understanding and are its inner object. (Theod. 180-184, 185, 335, 351, 380.)
我們不能像有些人,如笛卡爾和後來的波瓦雷①那樣,認為永恆的真理既然依賴於上帝,就是偶然的,依賴於上帝的意志。這一觀點只是對於偶然真理而言是真實的,偶然真理的原則是合適性或對最佳者的選擇,而必然真理則僅僅依賴於上帝的理智,是上帝理智的內在目標。(參見《神正論》第180-184節,第185節,第335節,第351節,第380節)
解釋:在永恆真理(數學和邏輯真理)的性質上萊布尼茨與笛卡爾派有著激烈的爭論。在笛卡爾派的意志主義(voluntarism)觀點看來,永恆真理完全依賴於上帝的意志,只要上帝願意,2加2完全可以等於5。而萊布尼茨則認為,永恆真理僅僅是存在於上帝的理智之中,上帝對於永恆真理只能發現和認同,而不能創造和更改。萊布尼茨與笛卡爾派的這個爭論,實際上是中世紀神學中阿奎那與鄧·司哥特(Duns Scotus)的爭論的繼續。在這一點上,萊布尼茨與阿奎那的觀點是一致的。
萊布尼茨認為,偶然的事實真理才依賴於上帝的意志,事實真理所相關的現實世界是上帝的意志根據最佳者原則從所有可能世界中挑選出來的最完滿者,並使其現實化。沒有上帝的意志,偶然真理就得不到說明。
Thus God alone is the primary unity or original simple substance, of which all created or derivative Monads are products and have their birth, so to speak, through continual fulgurations of the Divinity from moment to moment, limited by the receptivity of the created being, of whose essence it is to have limits. (Theod. 382-391, 398, 395.)
Jun 15
luova ajatus
41.Whence it follows that God is absolutely perfect; for perfection is nothing but amount of positive reality, in the strict sense, leaving out of account the limits or bounds in things which are limited. And where there are no bounds, that is to say in God, perfection is absolutely infinite. (Theod. Pref.22, [E. 469 a; G. vi. 27].)
由此可知,上帝是絕對完滿的;因為嚴格意義上的完滿性正是指積極實在性之全部,而將有限之物的局限和限度排除在外。在沒有局限之處,即在上帝中,完滿性是絕對無限的。(參見《神正論》序言 第22節[E. 469 a; G. vi. 27].)
解釋:在萊布尼茨那里,上帝的絕對完滿性和無限性的一個重要表現是,上帝的知覺是徹底清晰的,因而上帝得以作為純粹的精神而存在。而其他的單子的知覺則有不同程度的混亂,必須與一個形體相伴隨,因為形體正是混亂的知覺的某種產物,是單子的有限性和被動性的重要表現。
42.It follows also that created beings derive their perfections from the influence of God, but that their imperfections come from their own nature, which is incapable of being without limits. For it is in this that they differ from God. An instance of this original imperfection of created beings may be seen in the natural inertia of bodies. (Theod. 20, 27-30, 153, 167, 377-378,380;Abridgmet,obj.5.)
過本體論證明從上 帝的本質得出上存在。還可得出,創造物的完滿性源於上帝的影響,而其不完滿性則源於自身的不能沒有局限的本性。正是在此它們與上帝區別開來。創造物的原初的不完滿性的例證可在其軀體的自然的惰性中發現。(參見《神正論》第20節, 第20節, 第27-30節, 第153節, 第167節, 第377-378節, 第380節;節略,異議5)
解釋:上帝的創世並未創造事物的本質,事物的本質永恆地存在於可能世界之中。上帝的創世是指上帝挑選出一些事物的本質使其現實化,以構成一個所有可能世界中的最佳世界。因而創造物的局限性源於自身的本質或概念。
43.It is farther true that in God there is not only the source of existences but also that of essences, in so far as they are real, that is to say, the source of what is real in the possible. For the understanding of God is the region of eternal truths or of the ideas on which they depend, and without Him there would be nothing real in the possibilities of things, and not only would there be nothing in existence, but nothing would even be possible. (Theod. 20.)
同樣真實的是,上帝不僅是存在的源泉,也是本質的源泉,就本質是真實的而言,也就是說,是可能性中真實的東西的源泉。因為上帝的理智是永恆的真理或觀念的依附之處,沒有上帝就沒有任何在可能性中真實之物,不僅沒有任何東西存在,甚至沒有任何東西是可能的。(參見《神正論》第20節)
解釋:本質或觀念只要符合矛盾律,即不包含自相矛盾的東西,就是真實的,也就是說具有某種實在性,這些真實的本質或觀念只能存在於上帝的理智之中。這構成了萊布尼茨的另一個對上帝存在的證明。
44.For if there is a reality in essences or possibilities, or rather in eternal truths, this reality must needs be founded in something existing and actual, and consequently in the existence of the necessary Being, in whom essence involves existence, or in whom to be possible is to be actual. (Theod. 184-189, 335.)
如果在本質或可能性中,或者在必然真理中存在著某種實在,那麼這一實在就必須奠基於某種存在和現實之物,也就是必然實體的存在上,這種必然實體的本質包含了存在,或者在其中可能的都是現實的。(參見《神正論》第184-189節,第335節)
Jun 24
luova ajatus
Thus the final reason of things must be in a necessary substance, in which the variety of particular changes exists only eminently, as in its source; and this substance we call God. (Theod. 7.)
因而事物的最終理由必須存在於一個必然實體之中,在這一實體中,特殊變化的細節僅僅卓越地存在著,就像在其源頭一樣;我們將這一實體稱為上帝。(參見《神正論》第7節)
解釋:「卓越地」(eminently)與「形式地」(formally)相對應,為經院哲學術語,但在萊布尼茨時代仍很流行。甲「形式地」存在於乙中,是指甲物理地作為乙的一個部分而存在,如馬腿之於馬;而甲「卓越地」存在於乙中,不是就物理意義而是就解釋或邏輯意義而言,即乙是邏輯在先的,對甲的解釋要依賴於乙。
所謂「特殊變化的細節僅僅卓越地存在」於上帝之中,也就是說上帝是萬事萬物的充足理由。
39.Now as this substance is a sufficient reason of all this variety of particulars, which are also connected together throughout; there is only one God, and this God is sufficient.
這一實體是所有特殊事物的充足理由,而這些特殊事物是普遍相關聯的;只有一個上帝,而且這一上帝就足夠了。
解釋:由於上帝為世界提供了充足理由,而且上帝是其自身的充足理由,因而充足理由律的追問之鏈在上帝這里終結了,即只有一個上帝就足夠了。而如果存在多個上帝的話,又會引出一系列的「為什麼」,如每個上帝的特性是什麼,上帝之間的關係如何等等。在萊布尼茨看來,只有承認上帝的唯一性才能保證上帝是最終的充足理由。
40.We may also hold that this supreme substance, which is unique, universal and necessary, nothing outside of it being independent of it,—this substance, which is a pure sequence of possible being, must be illimitable and must contain as much reality as is possible.
我們還可得出,這一最高實體是唯一的、普遍的和必然的,沒有任何事物能在它之外而獨立於它,這一實體,作為可能存在的直接結果①,一定是沒有限制的,且包含盡可能多的實在。
解釋:「沒有任何事物能在它(上帝)之外而獨立於它」,這句話貌似斯賓諾莎的泛神論口吻,但萊布尼茨的意思並不是指萬物存在於上帝自身之中,而是指萬物處於超越的上帝的作用和統轄之中。可以用第38節中的經院哲學術語來解釋,即萬物卓越地而非形式地存在於上帝之中。
接下來,萊布尼茨按照安瑟爾謨的本體論證明的思路,從上帝的本質或觀念(可能存在)推出上帝必然存在。
Jun 30
luova ajatus
35.In short, there are simple ideas, of which no definition can be given; there are also axioms and postulates, in a word, primary principles, which cannot be proved, and indeed have no need of proof; and these are identical propositions, whose opposite involves an express contradiction. (Theod. 36, 37, 44, 45, 49, 52, 121-122, 337, 340-344.)
最後,有一些不能給出定義的簡單觀念;還有一些公理和公設,即基本的原理,是不能證明的,也沒必要卻證明;這些是同一性的陳述,其反面包含著明顯的矛盾。(參見《神正論》第36節、第37節、第44節、第45節、第49節、第52節、第121-122節、第337節、第340-344節)
36.But there must also be a sufficient reason for contingent truths or truths of fact, that is to say, for the sequence or connexion of the things which are dispersed throughout the universe of created beings, in which the analyzing into particular reasons might go on into endless detail, because of the immense variety of things in nature and the infinite division of bodies. There is an infinity of present and past forms and motions which go to make up the efficient cause of my present writing; and there is an infinity of minute tendencies and dispositions of my soul, which go to make its final cause.
但充足理由也必須存在於偶然真理或事實真理,也就是說,存在於散布在創造物的世界中的事物的序列或聯系,在此,對特殊理由的分析可以進展到無窮的細節,因為自然界中的事物無比繁復以及物體可以無限分割。無數的現在和過去的狀態和運動構成了我當前寫作的動力因;而我靈魂中的無數的細微傾向和性情構成了它的目的因。
37.And as all this detail again involves other prior or more detailed contingent things, each of which still needs a similar analysis to yield its reason, we are no further forward;and the sufficient or final reason must be outside of the sequence or series of particular contingent things, however infinite this series may be.
由於所有這些細節又包含其他的在先的或更細微的偶然事物,而這些仍然需要同樣的分析來獲得其理由,這樣我們就不能再進一步了;充足的或最終的理由必須存在於特殊的偶然事物的序列之外,無論這一序列是如何無限。
解釋:作為事實真理的原則的充足理由律的內容很簡單,即沒有任何事物的存在或發生是沒有理由的,也就是說,對任何事情我們都可以追問「問什麼」。這一貌似空洞的原則至少有兩個重大的涵義:其一,它意味著世界有著自在的秩序,而且這種秩序在原則上能夠被理性所認識,這鮮明地表現出萊布尼茨哲學的理性主義色彩;其二,它被萊布尼茨用來引出對上帝存在的宇宙論證明,即由於事物之間的普遍聯系,對任一事物的充足理由的追朔都會延伸到整個世界,而世界作為整體的充足理由只能在世界之外,即超越的上帝。參見萊布尼茨《關於理性與神恩的基於理性的原則》第8節。
第五部分 上帝 (第38節—第46節)
Jul 3
luova ajatus
32.And that of sufficient reason, in virtue of which we hold that there can be no fact real or existing, no statement true, unless there be a sufficient reason, why it should be so and not otherwise, although these reasons usually cannot be known by us. (Theod. 44, 196.)
其二為充足理由律,借助於這一原則,我們認為,除非有為什麼是這樣而不是那樣的充足理由,否則就沒有事實是真實的或存在的,沒有陳述是正確的,盡管這些理由常常不為我們所知。(參見《神正論》第44節,第196節)
33.There are also two kinds of truths, those of reasoning and those of fact. Truths of reasoning are necessary and their opposite is impossible; truths of fact are contingent and their opposite is possible. When a truth is necessary, its reason can be found by analysis, resolving it into more simple ideas and truths, until we come to those which are primary. (Theod. 170, 174, 189, 280-282, 367. Abrege, Object. 3.)
也存在著兩種真理,即推理的真理和事實的真理。推理的真理是必然的,其反面是不可能的;事實的真理是偶然的,其反面是可能的。當某個真理是必然的,其理由就可以通過分析而發現,可以將它分解為更簡單的觀念和真理,直到發現那些最基本的東西。(參見《神正論》第170節、第174節、第189節、第280-282節、第367節。節略,異議3)
解釋:萊布尼茨的理性的兩大原則矛盾律和充足理由律分別對應於兩種不同的真理,即推理的真理和事實的真理,或者必然的真理和偶然的真理。在他看來,推理的真理或必然真理指是指必然為真的同一性的陳述,即通過人的理性分析,可發現該陳述的謂詞包含語主詞之中。由此可知,與之相應的矛盾律的本質就在於a﹦a,因而萊布尼茨有時又將矛盾律稱為同一律(principle of identity)。他認為,邏輯學和數學就是建立在矛盾律或同一律的基礎上的,是相關於邏輯世界或可能世界的。
而事實的真理或偶然的真理則是相關於現實世界的陳述,並不必然為真,其反面總是可能的。例如,昨天雖然沒有下雨,但昨天也完全有可能下雨,這在邏輯上並不包含矛盾。也就是說,關於現實世界的陳述,至少就人的理性而言,不能視作謂詞包含於主詞之中的同一性陳述。那麼事實真理或偶然真理的真理性就不是源於矛盾律,而必須另有來源,即充足理由律。
34.It is thus that in Mathematics speculative Theorems and practical Canons are reduced by analysis to Definitions, Axioms and Postulates.
因而,在數學上思辨的原理和實踐的法則,可通過分析而歸結為定義、公理和公設。
Jul 5
luova ajatus
28. In so far as the concatenation of their perceptions is due to the principle of memory alone, men act like the lower animals, resembling the empirical physicians, whose methods are those of mere practice without theory. Indeed, in three-fourths of our actions we are nothing but empirics. For instance, when we expect that there will be daylight to-morrow, we do so empirically, because it has always so happened until now. It is only the astronomer who thinks it on rational grounds.
就其知覺的連貫性僅在於記憶的原則而言,人的行為類似於動物,就象經驗主義的醫生,只有實踐而缺乏理論。實際上,我們在自身的四分之三的行為上都是經驗主義者。例如,當我們預期明天會有白晝的時候,我們只是憑經驗,因為直到目前事情一直是這樣的。只有天文學家才能以理性的根據對此進行思考。
解釋:作為理性主義者,萊布尼茨認為只有普遍性的理性知識才使人與動物區別開來,人的經驗與動物的聯想並沒有本質不同。
29. But it is the knowledge of necessary and eternal truths that distinguishes us from the mere animals and gives us Reason and the sciences, raising us to the knowledge of ourselves and of God. And it is this in us that is called the rational soul or mind [esprit].
但只有必然的、永恆的真理才將我們與單純的動物區分開來,給予我們理性和科學,將我們提升到具有關於我們自身和上帝的知識。這就是我們之內所謂的理性靈魂或心靈。
30. It is also through the knowledge of necessary truths, and through their abstract expression, that we rise to acts of reflexion, which make us think of what is called I, and observe that this or that is within us;and thus, thinking of ourselves, we think of being, of substance, of the simple and the compound, of the immaterial, and of God Himself, conceiving that what is limited in us is in Him without limits. And these acts of reflexion furnish the chief objects of our reasonings. (Theod. Pref. [E. 469; G. vi. 27].)
也正是憑借必然真理的知識以及它們的抽象表達,我們才提升到具有反思活動,這使我們能夠思維所謂「自我」,並觀察到這或那處於「我們」之中;就這樣,通過思維自我,我們也就思維到存在、實體,思維到單純物和複合物,以及非實在之物和上帝自身,並設想在我們身上有限的卻會在上帝之中沒有限制。這些反思的活動為我們(當前的形而上學)①的推理提供了主要對象。(參見《神正論》前言,[E. 469; G. vi. 27])
解釋:作為理性靈魂或心靈,憑借著對必然真理的理性知識的認識,而擁有了反思活動,具有了自我意識,並進而獲得了有關存在、實體、複合物、上帝等的哲學真理。值得注意的是,在萊布尼茨那里,自我意識與理性的反思能力緊密相連、密不可分,而對自我意識的反思則是形而上學的源泉。作為德國哲學之父,萊布尼茨的這種注重主體性的哲學傾向對德國古典哲學的發展有著非常深遠的影響。
第四部分 理性的兩大原則和兩種真理 (第31節—第37節)
31. Our reasonings are grounded upon two great principles, that of contradiction, in virtue of which we judge false that which involves a contradiction, and true that which is opposed or contradictory to the false; (Theod. 44, 169.)
我們的推理建立在兩大原則之上,其一為矛盾律,借助於這一原則,我們將包含矛盾者判斷為假,並將與假的相對立或相矛盾的判斷為真。(參見《神正論》第44節,第169節)
Jul 10
luova ajatus
25.We see also that nature has given heightened perceptions to animals, from the care she has taken to provide them with organs, which collect numerous rays of light, or numerous undulations of the air, in order, by uniting them, to make them have greater effect. Something similar to this takes place in smell, in taste and in touch, and perhaps in a number of other senses, which are unknown to us. And I will explain presently how that which takes place in the soul represents what happens in the bodily organs.
我們也看到,大自然通過賦予動物以感覺器官而給與了它們強化的知覺,這些感覺器官把無數的光線和空氣的波動收集起來,通過把它們結合起來而使其具有更顯著的效果。同樣的事情也發生於嗅覺、味覺和觸覺,以及大概不為人所知的一些其他的感官。我不久將解釋,為何在靈魂中所發生的事能夠反映感官中所發生的事。
解釋:動物的單子(靈魂)因具有感覺器官而擁有了較清晰的、有意識的、有記憶的知覺。至於物質性的感官何以能夠與無形體的靈魂相溝通這一問題,萊布尼茨用他的「前定和諧」理論加以解釋。
26. Memory provides the soul with a kind of consecutiveness, which resembles [imite] reason, but which is to be distinguished from it. Thus we see that when animals have a perception of something which strikes them and of which they have formerly had a similar perception, they are led, by means of representation in their memory, to expect what was combined with the thing in this previous perception, and they come to have feelings similar to those they had on the former occasion. For instance, when a stick is shown to dogs, they remember the pain it has caused them, and howl and run away. (Theod. Preliminary Discourse, sec. 65.)
記憶為靈魂提供一種連貫性,這種連貫性雖類似於理性,卻有必要與理性區別開來。我們注意到,如果動物以前曾被某物毆打,當它們又見到此物時,記憶中的表象會驅使它們去期待在以往的知覺中與該物相連的東西,它們會產生與以前的情形中類似的感受。例如,當人向狗舉起棍子的時候,狗會記起棍子曾造成的痛苦,就嚎叫著跑開了。(參見《神正論》初步論述,第65節)
27. And the strength of the mental image which impresses and moves them comes either from the magnitude or the number of the preceding perceptions. For often a strong impression produces all at once the same effect as a long-formed habit, or as many and oft-repeated ordinary perceptions.
那些刺激並驅動它們的心理印象的力量源於以往知覺的強度或數量。因為一個強烈的印象常立即產生與長期形成的習慣或許多經常重復的普通知覺相同的效果。
解釋:記憶使得動物能夠將特定的知覺聯系在一起形成習慣性的聯想,從而使動物的行為具有某種一貫性。
Jul 21
luova ajatus
21.And it does not follow that in this state the simple substance is without any perception. That, indeed, cannot be, for the reasons already given; for it cannot perish, and it cannot continue to exist without being affected in some way, and this affection is nothing but its perception. But when there is a great multitude of little perceptions, in which there is nothing distinct, one is stunned; as when one turns continuously round in the same way several times in succession, whence comes a giddiness which may make us swoon, and which keeps us from distinguishing anything. Death can for a time put animals into this condition.
這並不意味著,在這一狀態中單純實體沒有任何知覺。根據前面給出的理由這是不可能的;因為它不能在沒有某種性質也就是知覺的情況下停止存在或繼續存在。可是當一個人具有無數微小的知覺,其中卻無一清晰,這時他就昏迷了;就象朝某個方向連續轉圈若干次,會使我們頭暈目眩而昏厥,不能分辨任何東西。死亡能夠在某段時間內把動物置於這種狀態。
22.And as every present state of a simple substance is naturally a consequence of its preceding state, in such a way that its present is big with its future; (Theod. 350.)
既然單純實體的現在狀態是其前一狀態的自然結果,同樣地,它的現在就孕含了將來。(參見《神正論》第350節)
23.And as, on waking from stupor, we are conscious of our perceptions, we must have had perceptions immediately before we awoke, although we were not at all conscious of them; for one perception can in a natural way come only from another perception, as a motion can in a natural way come only from a motion. (Theod. 401-403.)
由於我們一從昏迷中覺醒過來就意識到知覺,我們在覺醒之前一定也具有知覺,盡管我們完全不能意識到它們;因為知覺只能以自然的方式源於另一(在先的)知覺,就象一個運動以自然的方式源於另一(在先的)運動①。(參見《神正論》第401-403節)
24.It thus appears that if we had in our perceptions nothing marked and, so to speak, striking and highly-flavoured, we should always be in a state of stupor. And this is the state in which the bare Monads are.
由此可知,如果我們知覺中沒有那些清晰的,也就是說,顯著的和極有特色的東西,我們就會永遠處於昏迷之中。而這正是赤裸的單子所處的狀態。
解釋:在第20-24節中,萊布尼茨認為人的無意識狀態與赤裸的單子是非常類似的,即都沒有任何清晰的知覺,從而說明赤裸的單子確實是存在的或至少其存在是可以設想的。萊布尼茨認為,無意識的知覺必然是存在的,否則單子就失去其恆存性而不成其為實體,人在昏迷或無夢的睡眠這些無意識狀態中就陷入死亡而無法蘇醒了。
Jul 23
luova ajatus
17.Moreover, it must be confessed that perception and that which depends upon it are inexplicable on mechanical grounds, that is to say, by means of figures and motions. And supposing there were a machine, so constructed as to think, feel, and have perception, it might be conceived as increased in size, while keeping the same proportions, so that one might go into it as into a mill. That being so, we should, on examining its interior, find only parts which work one upon another, and never anything by which to explain a perception. Thus it is in a simple substance, and not in a compound or in a machine, that perception must be sought for. Further, nothing but this (namely, perceptions and their changes) can be found in a simple substance. It is also in this alone that all the internal activities of simple substances can consist. (Theod. Pref. [E. 474; G. vi. 37].)
此外,必須承認,知覺以及依賴於知覺的東西,不能用機械的原因來解釋,也就是說,不能用形狀和運動來解釋。假設有一架機器,被制作得能夠思想、感受和擁有知覺,想像它在保持同一比例的情況下在尺寸上被放大,以至於人們可以像走進磨坊一樣進入它。在這種情況下,在考察它的內部的時候,我們只能看到一些部分作用於另一部分,而決找不到任何能夠解釋知覺的東西。因此,只能在單純實體中而非在複合物或機器中尋找知覺。況且,在單純實體中能被找到的只有這個(即知覺及其變化)。單純實體的全部內在運動也僅在於此。(參見《神正論》序言,[E. 474; G. vi. 37])
解釋:萊布尼茨此處的例子是指能夠知覺的機器是不可能存在的,因為作為實體的特性的知覺是一種質的規定,不能用機械論的量的觀點來解釋。
18.All simple substances or created Monads might be called Entelechies, for they have in them a certain perfection (echousi to enteles); they have a certain self-sufficiency (autarkeia) which makes them the sources of their internal activities and, so to speak, incorporeal automata. (Theod. 87.)
所有的單純實體或被創造的單子都可被稱為隱得來希,因為它們自身之內都具有某種完滿性;他們具有某種自足性,使得他們成為自身內在活動的源泉,也就是說,無形體的自動機。(參見《神正論》,第87節)
解釋:「隱得來希」在希臘文中原義指「完滿」、「完整」,亞里斯多德用「隱得來希」一詞表示從潛能到現實的運動,萊布尼茨的「隱得來希」強調單子的圓滿性和自足性,更接近該詞的本義。
單子或「隱得來希」的圓滿性和自足性是有限的,要不然就和上帝沒有區別了。單子為上帝所創造並被賦予了運動的原則,因而每個單子都是自我運動的、自足的,不需要任何外界的影響。
第三部分 單子的等級 (第19節—第30節)
19.If we are to give the name of Soul to everything which has perceptions and desires [appetits] in the general sense which I have explained, then all simple substances or created Monads might be called souls; but as feeling [le sentiment] is something more than a bare perception, I think it right that the general name of Monads or Entelechies should suffice for simple substances which have perception only, and that the name of Souls should be given only to those in which perception is more distinct, and is accompanied by memory.
如果我們把靈魂一詞賦予具有我所解釋的一般意義的知覺和欲求的所有事物,那麼所有的單純實體或被創造的單子都可被稱作靈魂;但因為感受包含了比赤裸的知覺更多的東西,所以我同意單子或隱得來希這種一般的名稱對於僅僅具有知覺的單子而言是足夠的,靈魂這一名稱應該被給與那些具有更清晰的知覺、有記憶相伴隨的單子。
解釋:萊布尼茨按知覺的清晰程度把單子分成三個等級:最低級的是赤裸的單子,只具有最含混的無意識的知覺;其次是靈魂(soul),具有有意識的知覺即感受,有記憶相伴隨;再次是心靈(mind)或精神(spirit),其知覺具有自我意識和理性。
20.For we experience in ourselves a condition in which we remember nothing and have no distinguishable perception; as when we fall into a swoon or when we are overcome with a profound dreamless sleep. In this state the soul does not perceptibly differ from a bare Monad; but as this state is not lasting, and the soul comes out of it, the soul is something more than a bare Monad. (Theod. 64.)
我們在自己身上體驗到一種情形,即我們對之沒有任何記憶且沒有任何可辨識的知覺;如我們陷入昏迷或深沉的無夢的睡眠的時候。在這種狀態下靈魂與赤裸的單子之間沒有可覺察的區別;但由於這一狀態是不持久的,靈魂會從中擺脫出來,靈魂是某種比赤裸的單子更豐富的東西。(參見《神正論》第64節)
Jul 25
luova ajatus
14.The passing condition, which involves and represents a multiplicity in the unit [unite] or in the simple substance, is nothing but what is called Perception, which is to be distinguished from Apperception or Consciousness, as will afterwards appear. In this matter the Cartesian view is extremely defective, for it treats as non-existent those perceptions of which we are not consciously aware. This has also led them to believe that minds [esprits] alone are Monads, and that there are no souls of animals nor other Entelechies. Thus, like the crowd, they have failed to distinguish between a prolonged unconsciousness and absolute death, which has made them fall again into the Scholastic prejudice of souls entirely separate [from bodies], and has even confirmed ill-balanced minds in the opinion that souls are mortal.
這一在單元或單純實體中包涵並表現多樣性的暫時狀態正是所謂知覺,如下所說,知覺應該與統覺或意識區別開來。在這一點上笛卡爾派的觀點極其錯誤,因為他們把人們意識覺察不到的知覺視為是不存在。這也使他們認為只有心靈才是單子,而不存在動物的靈魂或其他的隱得來希。因而,他們像平常人一樣,不能把長期的無意識與嚴格的死亡區分開來,這使他們再次陷入經院哲學的偏見,使靈魂完全脫離軀體,甚至贊成那些心智不健全的人所持的靈魂有死的觀點。
解釋:萊布尼茨將作為精神實體的單子的一中之多的狀態稱為知覺。值得重視的是,當萊布尼茨把單子定義為精神時,他大大地拓展了精神的范圍:知覺不能等同於有意識的知覺,還應該包括整個無意識領域;精神不能等同於人的心靈,還應該包括「動物的靈魂或其他的隱得來希」。這樣一來,精神的疆界變得無比寬廣,從而得以真正成為世界的本體。
在此,萊布尼茨批判了笛卡爾派的否認「人們意識覺察不到的知覺」的存在、將精神等同於人的有意識的心靈的狹隘見解,認為這會將長期的無意識和嚴格的死亡混為一談。在萊布尼茨看來,軀體是無意識的知覺的某種產物,與被創造的單子不可分離,而否認無意識的知覺,必然會導致「靈魂完全脫離軀體」的錯誤見解。笛卡爾派的狹隘的心靈觀甚至會導向懷疑靈魂的永恆性,因為只有承認無意識的知覺,才能保證精神的持續不斷的存在。
15,The activity of the internal principle which produces change or passage from one perception to another may be called Appetition. It is true that desire [l'appetit] cannot always fully attain to the whole perception at which it aims, but it always obtains some of it and attains to new perceptions.
那種產生變化或從一個知覺向另一個知覺的過渡的內在原則的活動被稱作欲求。誠然,欲求不能完全達到它所指向的全部知覺,但他們總會有所收獲並達到新的知覺。
解釋:知覺和欲求是單子的兩個緊密聯系的根本規定。每個被創造的單子都以上帝的全知、全能和全善為其最終欲求目的,但這是不可能徹底達到的,因而每個單子都表現為永不停息的追求和運動。
16. We have in ourselves experience of a multiplicity in simple substance, when we find that the least thought of which we are conscious involves variety in its object. Thus all those who admit that the soul is a simple substance should admit this multiplicity in the Monad; and M. Bayle ought not to have found any difficulty in this, as he has done in his Dictionary, article 『Rorarius.』
當我們在我們所意識到的最細微的念頭中也能發現它包含著一些不同的對象時,我們就在自身體驗到了單純實體中的多樣性。因而所有那些承認靈魂是單純實體的人也應該承認單子中的這種多樣性;貝爾先生也不應該在此發現困難,如他在他的辭典「羅拉留」辭條中所做的那樣。
解釋:在此萊布尼茨以人的意識活動為例,再次論證單子的「一中之多」的特性:人的意識活動本身是「一」,意識活動總是有多樣性的內容則是「多」。
皮埃爾·貝(1647 –1706) ,是法國主張懷疑論的新教神學家在其《歷史與批判詞典》的 「羅拉留」(1485-1556,主張動物有理性)辭條中,以人的理性的軟弱無力這一懷疑主義思想批判了萊布尼茨的理性神學觀點。
Jul 26
luova ajatus
10.I assume also as admitted that every created being, and consequently the created Monad, is subject to change, and further that this change is continuous in each.
我還認為以下觀點是理所當然的,即每一創造物,因而每一被創造的單子都是變化著的,而且這一變化在每一事物中都是持續不斷的。
11.It follows from what has just been said, that the natural changes of the Monads come from an internal principle, since an external cause can have no influence upon their inner being. (Theod. 396, 400.)
由前可知,單子的自然變化源於一個內在的原則,因為外在的原因不能對它們的內部產生影響。(參見《神正論》第396節、第400節)
解釋:在早期近代哲學中,萊布尼茨以其動態的實體觀而獨樹一幟,在他看來,單子處於永恆運動之中,且這種運動源於自身。這對當時由於機械力學的影響而在哲學界流行的靜態的實體觀而言是一個有力的批判。
12.But, besides the principle of the change, there must be a particular series of changes [un detail de ce qui change], which constitutes, so to speak, the specific nature and variety of the simple substances.
但是,除了變化的原則之外,還必須有一個變化的特殊系列,它構成了單純實體的特殊性和不同性。
13.This particular series of changes should involve a multiplicity in the unit [unite] or in that which is simple. For, as every natural change takes place gradually, something changes and something remains unchanged; and consequently a simple substance must be affected and related in many ways, although it has no parts.
這一變化的特殊系列應該在單元或單純物中包涵多樣性。因為,每一自然的變化都是逐漸發生的,有些東西變化了,而另一些東西沒有變;從而,單純實體盡管沒有部分,它必須具有很多性質和關係。
解釋:所謂「變化的特殊系列」是指單子運動的整個過程。對萊布尼茨而言,單子既是「一」又是「多」。單子的「一」是指單子的沒有量的規定的單純性,單子的「多」一般指它必須具有若干的性質。值得注意的是,當萊布尼茨從「變化的特殊系列」來談單子的「多」時,意義比較獨特,側重於動態的、系統的角度。
Aug 2
luova ajatus
8.Yet the Monads must have some qualities, otherwise they would not even be existing things. And if simple substances did not differ in quality, there would be absolutely no means of perceiving any change in things. For what is in the compound can come only from the simple elements it contains, and the Monads, if they had no qualities, would be indistinguishable from one another, since they do not differ in quantity. Consequently, space being a plenum, each part of space would always receive, in any motion, exactly the equivalent of what it already had, and no one state of things would be discernible from another.
然而,單子必須具有一些性質,否則它們就甚至不是存在物了。而且,如果單純實體不在性質上相區別,就根本沒有辦法來覺察事物的變化。因為存在於複合物中的東西,只能源於它所包含的簡單要素。而單子如果不在性質上有所不同的話,就不可能把它們區別開來,因為它們不能在量上相不同。因此,空間作為「充實」,在任何一個運動中,空間的每一部分只是接受它已具有的運動的等價物,事物的任何一種狀態都不能與其它狀態相區別了。
解釋:萊布尼茨首先確定單子必須具有一些性質,其次,單子的性質必須彼此不同,否則,經驗世界的變化和多樣性就不能得到說明,因為作為現象的複合物最終是由單純物的單子所決定的。與當時流行的自然哲學不同,萊布尼茨否認虛空的存在,並認為,如果單子之間沒有質的差別,那麼現象世界作為充滿同質物體的充實的空間,就不會有任何變化和區別了。
9.Indeed, each Monad must be different from every other. For in nature there are never two beings which are perfectly alike and in which it is not possible to find an internal difference, or at least a difference founded upon an intrinsic quality [denomination].
確實,每一單子都必須與其它單子相區別。因為在自然中決不會有兩個東西完全一樣,以至於在它們身上找不到內在的差異,或至少是建立在內在性質上的差異。
① 「感性形式」(sensible species):根據亞里斯多德的認識論,當感官受外物刺激時會形成「感性形式」,這種「感性形式」是對外界事物的反映和表象。阿奎那等經院哲學家接受了亞里斯多德」是對外界事物的反映和表象。亞里斯多德的這種理論。譯者注4
解釋:這就是萊布尼茨著名的「不可辨別者的同一性原則」(The principle of the identity of indiscernibles.)。
第二部分 單子的變化 (第10節——第18節)
Aug 13